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VETERINARY MEDICINE SERIES 

No. 2 

Edited by D. M. Campbell, D.V.S. 



POULTRY DISEASES 

With A Chapter On The 

ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



BY 

B. F. KAUPP, M.S., D.V.M. 

Pathologist and Poultry Investigator, Animal Industry Division, North 

Carolina Experiment Station and Agricultural and Mechanical College; 

Formerly Director of Anatomy Laboratory, Kansas City Veterinary 

College; Formerly Pathologist, Colorado Agricultural College 

and Experiment Station; Formerly Veterinary Inspector, 

B. A. I. 



SECOND EDITION 



Revised and Enlarged 



Published by 

AMERICAN VETERINARY PUBLISHING CO., 
Chicago 



SF«ffS" 
1117 



Copyright 1917 By 
AMERICAN VETERINARY PUBLISHING CO. 



DEC 15 1917 



©CI.A481011 



FOREWORD TO SECOND EDITION 

This book is written to fill a demand from veterinary stu- 
dents, students in poultry husbandry courses at agricultural 
colleges, veterinary practitioners and others interested in the 
scientific treatment of poultry diseases. 

An effort has been made to make the language so plain that 
all can comprehend the subject matter, which is a summary 
of results of experimental research in the laboratory of path- 
ology of the author and of many other investigators. 

For the purpose of simplification, the synonyms are given 
for the various names of diseases. Then follow, in order, the 
cause, or causes, the symptoms, the conditions found upon 
post-mortem examination, and lastly the treatment and means 
of eradication for each disease. 

The author is indebted to Dr. D ! . M. Campbell, editor of the 
American Journal of Veterinary Medicine, for helpful sug- 
gestions as to arrangement and other matters. 

The first edition being exhausted in so short a time is evi- 
dence that it met the expectations of the author and the pub- 
lisher—that it filled a real need. This second edition has been 
thoroughly revised and brought down to date. Much new 
information in the chapters on anatomy of the fowl, foods 
poisonous to fowls and poultry materia medica has been 
added. 

West Raleigh, N. C, October, 1917. B. F. KAIJPP. 



CONTENTS 

List of Illustrations 9 

SECTION I. 
Anatomy 17 

The skeletal anatomy of the fowl; the musculature; the 
visceral anatomy; structure of the digestive tract and its. 
adjacent organs; structure of the respiratory tract; the cir- 
culatory system; the blood of normal fowl; the nervous sys- 
tem; organs of special sense; the reproductive organs of the 
hen; the male reproductive organs; the urinary secretion. 

SECTION II. 
Sanitation 53 

Site for poultry plant; buildings and runs; water sup- 
ply; disinfection; disposal of sick and dead birds. 

SECTION III. 
External Parasites 65 

Lice of birds; effects of louse infestation; dealing with 
louse infestation; scabies; scaly legs; air sac disease; chig- 
ger or red mite infestation; fleas affecting birds; tick in- 
festation; the begbug of poultry; fungi affecting birds; 
thrush or sore mouth; tinea favosa; pneumomycosis; my- 
cosis of pigeons; white scale of the comb; bee stings; the 
gray canary louse; the canary mite; baldness of canaries. 

SECTION IV. 
Internal Parasites — 8 " 



Important round worms: unimportant round worms; 
tapeworms; the thorn-headed worms; flukes. 

SECTION V. 

Diseases of the Digestive Tract..— 101 

Obstruction of the beak; pip; stomatitis; impaction of 
the crop; impaction of the intestines; tympany of the crop; 
enlarged crop; gangrene of the crop; catarrh of the crop; 
depraved appetite; chicken cholera; enterohepatitis; dys- 
entery; white diarrhea; croupous inflammation of the pig- 
eon; coccidiosis in wild ducks; protozoal hepatitis of 
pigeons; renal coccidiosis; blastomycosis of the goose; sar- 
cocystis; cloacitis; peritonitis; ascites; nephritis; calculi; 
purulent inflammation of the abdomen of the hen; intes- 
tinal diseases of canaries. 



6 CONTENTS 

SECTION VI. 

Blood Diseases _._ 133 

Apoplectiform septicemia in chickens and pigeons; sep- 
ticemia of geese; fowl typhoid; myeloid leukemia; sleep- 
ing sickness of chickens; septicemic diseases of canary 
birds; fowl pest; thrombosis; spirochetosis; pericarditis; 
endocarditis; rupture of the heart and large blood vessels; 
hypertrophy of the heart. 

SECTION VII. 

Constitutional Diseases 141 

Going light; tuberculosis; pseudo-tuberculosis; actino- 
mycosis; disease of the subcutem. 

SECTION VIII. 

Diseases of the Liver 149 

Fatty degeneration; fatty infiltration; rupture of the 
liver; inflammation of the liver; inflammation of the bile 
ducts; enterohepatitis; unimportant diseases. 

SECTION IX. 

Diseases of the Ovary and Oviduct..... 153 

Prolapse or eversion of the oviduct; obstruction of the 
oviduct; rupture of the oviduct; broken eggs in oviduct; 
prolapse of the cloaca; abnormal eggs; epizootic abortion 
in birds; inflammation of the oil gland. 

SECTION X. 

Tumors 159 

Hematoma; multiple tumors of the ovary; cystic ovary; 
abdominal cyst; contagious epithelioma; sarcoma; tera- 
toma; adenoma; epithelioma; osteoma; horny growths on 
the cuticular surface of fowls. 

SECTION XI. 

Diseases of the Respiratory Passages 167 

Obstruction of the trachea; catarrh; asthma; ulcerative 
pharyngitis; bronchitis; congestion of the lungs; pneumo- 
nia; pneumomycosis; swell-head in young turkeys; chick- 
enpox; diphtheric roup; pox of turkeys; contagious inflam- 
mation of the air sacs in geese; contagious nasal catarrh 
of birds; conjunctivitis; ulceration of the cornea; respira- 
tory troubles of canaries; asthma of canaries. 

SECTION XII. 

Diseases of the Organs of Locomotion 187 

Leg weakness; infectious articular inflammation in 
young geese and ducks; paralysis of the wings of pigeons; 
abscess of the foot; gout of fowls. 



CONTENTS 7 

SECTION XIII. 

Diseases of the Brain and Nerves 195 

Dizziness; hemorrhage of the brain; epilepsy; myelitis; 
polyneuritis; paralysis of the auditory nerve of the fowl. 

SECTION XIV. 
Bacteria of the Intestinal Tract of Chickens 201 

SECTION XV. 

The Egg..... 203 

Composition; parasites in eggs; bacteria of eggs; bac-. 
teria in fresh eggs. 

SECTION XVI. 
Malformations 207 

SECTION XVII. 

Fractures — Wounds — Anesthesia '. 211 

Repair of the fracture of bones of the domestic fowl; 
wounds; anesthesia and restraint of the fowl; injury to 
the sternum; gangrene; frozen combs; broken beak. 

SECTION XVIII. 

Castration of the Bird 221 

Caponizing; ovariectomy of the pullet. 

SECTION XIX. 

Foods Poisonous to Fowls 227 

The rose chafer; arsenical poisoning; salt poisoning; 
other mineral poisons; ptomain poisoning; botulism; corn 
cockle poisoning, 

SECTION XX. 

Poultry Remedies 231 

Poultry materia medica. 
Index 241 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

1. The Bony Skeleton of the Domestic Fowl.... 12 

2. The Visceral Organs of the Hen 14 

3. Visceral Organs of the Right Side of a Fowl 23 

4. Visceral Organs of the Left Side of a Fowl 24 

5. Section Through the Median Line of a Pullet 25 

6. Transverse Section Through the Thoracic Region : 27 

7. Heart of Fowl with Its Main Branches 33 

8. Blood Vessels of the Pelvis and Thigh of the Fowl 35 

9. Brain and Eyeball of the Fowl 37 

10. Section Through the Eye of a Hen 39 

11. Cochlear Labyrinth of a Hen 40 

12. The Pelvic Organs of a Pullet 42 

13. The Pelvic Organs of a Hen , 43 

14. Section of Ovary of the Hen 45 

15. Diagrammatic Structure of the Egg 46 

16. Generative Organs of a Cockerel.. 48 

17. Pelvic Cavity of a Cock 49 

1 8. Spermatozoa — „ 50 

19. Menopon Biseriatum 66 

20. Menopon Pallidum 66 

21. Goniocotes Hologaster.. 67 

22. Lipeurus Infuscatus. 67 

23. Goniodes Stylifer. , 67 

24. Lipeurus Baculus.. 68 

25. Eggs of the Goniodes Stylifer 68 

26. Inexpensive, Durable Spray Pump 71 

27. Sarcoptes Mutans 73 

28. Scaly Legs 74 

29. Cytodites Nudus 75 

30. Trombidium Holosericeum 76 

31. Dermanyssus Gallinse 79 

32. Pulex Avium 80 

33. Sarcopsylla Gallinacea 81 

34. Argas Miniatus. 82 

35. Acanthia Inodora 83 

36. Ascaris Inflexa 88 

37. Heterakis Papillosa 88 

38. Heterakis Papillosa, Head Extremity.. 88 

39. Heterakis Papillosa, Tail Extremity 90 

40. Spiroptera Hamulosa 91 

41. Syngamus Trachealis..... 92 

42. Taenia Infundibuliformis 96 

43. Nodular Taeniasis 97 

44. Blood Smear from Case of Cholera 107 

45. Enterohepatitis in a Turkey 112 

46. Cloudy Swelling Due to Enterohepatitis. 113 

47. Section of Liver from a Case of Enterohepatitis 114 

48. Blood Smear from a Case of Enterohepatitis '. 115 

49. Section of Kidney from Turkey That Died of Enterohepatitis 116 

50. Cecum from a Case of Enterohepatitis in a Turkey 117 



ILLUSTEATIONS 



FIG. PAGE 

51. Hemorrhagic Enteritis in a Hen 118 

52. Section Through Cecum from Case of White Diarrhea 122 

53. Coccidium Tenellum in Various Stages 122 

54. Croupous Inflammation in a Pigeon 124 . 

55. Pulmonary Coccidiosis in a Duck 127 

56. Intestinal Coccidiosis in a Duck 127 

57. Thrombosis in a Hen 137 

58. Spirocheta Gallinarum 138 

59. Acute Spirochetosis 138 

60. Hematoma of Ovary in a Hen .....159 

61. Multiple Tumors of Ovary of a Hen 161 

62. Hen With an Abdominal Cyst 162 

63. Heads of Two Chicks Affected with Contagious Epithelioma 163 

64. Obstruction of the Trachea 167 

65. Chickenpox 174 

66. Roup in a Chicken 175 

67. Diphtheric Roup in a Chicken 177 

68. Skiagraph of Head and Neck of Chicken 181 

69. Ulceration of the Cornea 184 

70. Thorn Abscess 190 

71. Paralysis of the Auditory Nerve 199 

72. Monster Chick (dipygus tetrabrachium) 207 

73. Polymelus 208 

74. Umbilical Hernia of a Baby Chick... 209 

75. Sections Through Bones at Different Stages of Fractures... .213 

76. Poultry Operating Table 216 

77. Injury to Sternum 217 

78. Gangrene of the Foot of a Turkey 218 

79. Top of Barrel As An Operating Table... 223 

80. Capon and Cock 225 



zM 




Fig. 1. The Bony Skeleton ok the Domestic Fowl. 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 1 
Head and Neck 

1, os incisivum — premaxilla; 2, anterior nasal opening; 3, os nasale 
—nasal bone; 4, os lacrimale — lacrimal bones; 5, lamina perpen- 
dicularis of the ethmoid bone; 6, os dentale— inferior maxilla or 
lower jaw; 7, the malar bone; 8, os quadratojugal; 9, os pterygoi- 
deum — pterygoid bone; 10, os quadratum; 11, os auriculare; 12, 
foramen or opening for the passage of the fifth nerve from the 
cranial cavity; 13, atlas or first cervical vertebra. . 

Trunk and Limbs 

14, os carpi radiale; 15, radius; 16, first digit (thumb)— false wing 
bone; 17, metacarpus; 18, second (middle or large) digit; 19, third 
(rudimentary) digit; 20, os carpi ulnare; 21, os ulnae (elbow); 
22, os humeri; 23, dorsal (thoracic) vertebra; 24, os scapulare; 
25, ilium; 26, foramen ischiaticum; 27, coccygeal (caudal) vertebrae; 
28, ploughshare bone; 29, foramen obturatum; 30, ischium; 31, 
uncinate process of the rib; 32, vertebral portion of the rib; 33, 
os clavicula; 34, os coracoideum; 35, femur (thigh bone) ; 36, pubis; 
37, sternum — breastbone; 38, lateral internal process of sternum; 
39, costal process of sternum; 40, keel of the sternum; 41, sternal 
portion of the rib attaching to the sternum; 42, lateral external 
process of the sternum; 43, fibula; 44, posterior process of the 
sternum; 45, internal notch of sternum; 46, patella (knee cap) ; 
47, tibia; 48, metatarsus; 49, 50, 53, principal digits; 51, rudimentary 
digit; 52, first toe. 




: 



Fig. 2. The Visceral Organs of the He* 



EXPLANATION OF FIG. 2 
Digestive and Genito-urinary Tract 

1, beak; 2, tongue; 3, pharynx; 4, esophagus (gullet); 5, crop; 
6, second portion of esophagus; 7, proventriculus; 8, gizzard; 9, duo- 
denum; 10, first portion of thi small intestine; 11, floating portion 
of small intestine; 12, ceca; 13, blind extremities of ceca; 14, colon; 
15, rectum; 16, cloaca; 17, opening of egg sac into rectum; 18, anus; 
19, mesentery; 20, opening from ureter into rectum; 21, kidney; 
22, left ovary; Z2, egg canal; 25, pancreas; 26, liver (turned back) ; 
27, gall bladder; 28, spleen. 

Organs of Respiration 

29, nostrils; 30, frontal sinus; 31, maxillary (infraorbital) sinus; 
32. turbinated bone; 33, posterior nares; 34, glottis; 35, larynx; 36. 
trachea (wind-pipe); 37, false larynx; 38, lung. 

Organs of Circulation 

39, heart (pulled down to bring it into view) ; 40, aorta; 41, left 
hrachial artery; 42, cartoid artery. 



SECTION I 
ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 

In the young bird the bones, for the most part, contain 
cavities filled with red marrow. In the adult bird these cavi- 
ties are largely filled with air. The air passes from the res- 
piratory organs into these cavities. This air is supposed to 
be renewed in the process of respiration. In the running 
birds most of the bones contain marrow. Separate bronchial 
tubes of the lungs are continued by the air sacs which com- 
municate with the air spaces of the bones. The air spaces are 
more abundant in the larger bones as the humerus, ulna and 
radius. 

The air passes into the air passages and bony cavities of 
the head, then through the superior larynx, trachea and in- 
ferior larynx into the bronchi. From air tubules here, the air 
passes into the air cells of the body cavities and then into 
the air cells of the bones. In the process of breathing the 
air is drawn out of the air sacs located in the body and bone 
cavities. Fresh air in turn is forced through the small com- 
municating tubules which enter the hollow bones through 
small openings in their bony walls. 

For study of the skeleton it may be divided into the three 
regions: head and neck, the trunk and the limbs. 

THE HEAD AND NECK 

(The numbers refer to Fig. 1) 
The bird's head is rather small and conical in shape and 
is composed of several bones as shown in Fig. 1. The os in- 
cisivum or premaxilla (1) forms the anterior point and 
base of the upper jaw. It is elongated anteriorly into a V 
point in the fowl and flattened in the water fowl as the duck 
and goose. This portion constitutes the beak. This bone, 
together with the os dentale (6) forms the prehensile organ 
or means of picking both solids and liquids. This organ con- 
tains the anterior nasal opening (2) through which air passes 
on its way to the lungs. The lamina perpendicularis of the 
ethmoid bone (5) forms a thin wall between the two orbits 
or eye cavities. It contains an opening or foramen for the 
passage of the optic nerve and a smaller opening, the ethmoid 
foramen, for the passage of the ethmoid nerve. The os 
palatinum or palatine bone encircles the guttural opening of 
the nasal passage and forms the greater part of the hard 



18 POULTRY DISEASES 

palate or roof of the mouth. It articulates with the pterygoid, 
superior maxilla and premaxilla. The os pterygoideum or 
pterygoid bone (9), articulates with the sphenoid and os 
quadratum (10). The os quadratum articulates with the 
temporal, maxilla, zygomatic and pterygoid. The os auricu- 
lare (11) is interposed between the maxilla and quadrate 
bone. The atlas (13) or first cervical vertebra articulates 
anteriorly with the condyle of the occipital bone and the axis, 
the latter being located posteriorly. 

There are fourteen cervical vertebrae in the fowl, fifteen 
in the duck, eighteen in the goose and twelve in the pigeon. 

The long column of cervical vertebrae serves as a sort of 
balancing pole, and by changing in form and direction it 
varies the center of gravity. In flying, the bird changes the 
center of gravity from the region over the legs to the region 
of the wings. When at rest the head and neck are thrown 
backwards, carrying the center of gravity back over the legs. 
The first cervical vertebra is the atlas. This is the smallest 
of the vertebrae and is ring-shaped. Anteriorly it articu- 
lates with the single condyle of the occipital bone. This 
anterior articular surface is half-moon shaped and forms a 
deep articular joint called a ball and socket joint. This 
type of joint makes possible, movements in all directions. 
The condyle of the occiput also touches an articular end of 
the odontoid process of the axis or second cervical vertebra. 
Posteriorly there are found two small lateral wings possessing 
articular facets which articulate with similar facets on the 
lateral wings of the axis. The posterior part of the body 
is provided with an articular facet which articulates with a 
similar articular surface on the anterior portion of the body 
of the axis. 

The body of each succeeding vertebra articulates with the 
one immediately anterior and posterior to it. Between each 
two is a pad of fibro-cartilage. Above these bodies and 
below the neural spines, we find a large neural canal which 
is occupied by the spinal cord. Between each two vertebral 
segments in the cervical region, the neural canal is exposed, 
due to the neural arches incompletely bridging the canal in 
that location. This space is protected or bridged over by an 
intervertebral ligament. 

The dorsal spines of the cervical vertebra are very small, 
the ventral are more distinct. The anterior oblique spines 
are provided on their under surfaces with articular facets, 
which articulate with similar articular facets on the upper 
side of the posterior oblique process of the vertebral segment 
in front. The ventral spine on the last cervical segment is 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 19 

well developed. The transverse processes on either side of 
the cervical vertebra are penetrated by a vertebral foramen. 
Through each of this series of foramina passes a vertebral 
artery, vertebral vein and a spinal nerve. The transverse 
processes of the last cervical vertebra are provided with 
ridges and excavations for muscular and tendinous attach- 
ments. 

TRUNK 

(The numbers refer to Fig. 1) 

The dorsal or thoracic vertebrae (23) number seven in the 
fowl and pigeon, and nine in the duck and goose. These 
bones are usually fused or consolidated, giving great support 
and stability to the wing. The dorsal vertebral region is 
short. The first and sixth vertebrae articulate similar to 
the cervical vertebra, that is, by the bodies and the oblique 
processes. The seventh dorsal is fused with the first lum- 
bosacral vertebra. The transverse processes of the dorsal 
vertebrae from the second to the sixth are well developed and 
bridged over with a thin wing of bone. The ventral spines are 
well developed and partly fused to form a continuous ridge. 

In the bird the lumbar and sacral vertebrae are consolidated. 
In the embryo there are fourteen distinct vertebrae which 
soon consolidate with each other and with the ribs. With 
these vertebral segments are fused the last dorsal and first 
coccygeal vertebral segments. This fusion is so complete that 
the segments are indicated only by the intervertebral foramina 
through which the spinal nerves extend. This fused lum- 
bosacral region forms the roof of the pelvic region. The 
lumbosacral vertebrae and ilia are fused. The dorsal spines 
of the vertebral segments are indicated only in the anterior 
portion. 

The joints of the coccygeal or caudal vertebrae (27) are 
freely movable since in the birds of flight the tail is used as 
a rudder. The terminal bone (28) is called the ploughshare 
bone. 

There are seven coccygeal vertebrae. The last segment is 
the larger and is supposed to have originated from the fusion 
of several segments. It is shaped like a ploughshare and is 
called the pygostyle. It supports that part which gives rise 
to the twelve main tail feathers. 

The ribs are divided into the true and false. 

The true ribs articulate with the sternum by means of an 
intermediate bone. The false ribs do not articulate with 
the sternum, but are floating. 

The first rib articulates with the quadrate portion of the 



20 POULTEY DISEASES 

last cervical vertebra and the first dorsal segment. The last 
rib articulates with the under side of the ilium at its ante- 
rior alar portion. This rib is situated similar to the true ribs, 
but instead of articulating directly with the sternum the sec- 
ond portion lies against the second portion of the rib just 
anterior to it. The ribs are provided with two articular 
facets on the dorsal portion, and these articulate with simi- 
lar facets on the dorsal vertebrae. The true ribs are called 
sternal ribs, and each succeeding sternal rib is longer than 
the one preceding it. Nearer and nearer these ribs assume i 
horizontal position. The proximal end of the sternal rib 
articulates with the distal end of the vertebral rib. Th.e 
sternal end is provided with two small ridges. 

From the posterior border of the second, third, fourth and 
fifth vertebral ribs and near their middles are flat uncinate 
bony processes projecting upward and forward overlying the 
succeeding rib, giving greater surface for muscular attach- 
ments and greater stability to the thorax. The vertebral por- 
tion of the rib (32) articulates inferiorly with the sternal 
portion (41) joining it to the sternum or breastbone, with 
which it articulates. The two portions of the rib are joined 
by a diarthrodial articulation. The uncinate process of the 
rib (31), is flat and projects backward onto the succeeding 
rib, giving added stability to the thorax. These processes 
are absent from the first and last ribs. 

The sternum or breastbone is a large four-sided plate of 
bone, the posterior portion of which overlaps the ribs on the 
outer side. On the inferior portion of the sternum there is 
a leaf-like ridge called the crista sterna or breast ridgo 
(or keel). This bony expansion gives a greater surface for 
the attachment of muscles. 

The sides are provided with an external and an internal 
process forming an internal and an external notch. These 
notches are bridged over by a broad ligament, to which the 
muscles are attached. In the poor flyers, as the fowls, these 
notches are large. The sternal end posteriorly is called the 
zyphoid process. Anteriorly it is provided with lateral ex- 
ternal processes, the costal processes. In the center of the 
anterior part is the episternal process. 

LIMBS 

The os scapulare (24) is elongated, narrow and presents 
smooth surfaces. Anteriorly it forms a portion of the gle- 
noid cavity and is united to the fork of the coracoid by means 
of fibro-cartilage. 

The os clavicula (33) terminates below in the hypocleideum 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 21 

(57) and unites to the breastbone by means of a ligament. 
The superior extremity rests within and opposite the glenoid 
cavity, against the scapula (24) and coracoid (34). These 
three bones form a passageway through which extends the 
tendon of the levator muscle of the wing. This bone is termed 
the "wish bone." Its forks are elastic and prevent the wings 
coming toward each other during contraction of the depressor 
muscles. The os coracoideum (34), with the scapula, forms a 
glenoid cavity at its proximal end in which articulates the 
head of the humerus. Inferiorly it articulates with the ster- 
num. The os humeri (22) presents an articular head inferiorly 
which occupies the glenoid cavity. It articulates superiorly 
with the radius (15) and ulna (21). The os ulnae is 
larger than the radius. This bone articulates inferiorly 
with the humerus and superiorly with the carpus in company 
with the radius and is provided with a short olecranon in- 
feriorly. The two bones meet at both extremities but bow 
apart in the middle. A strong ligament binds the ends so 
that pronation and supination is impossible. This limits 
movements to a gliding motion lengthwise. The carpus is 
made up of two bones, the os carpi radiale (14) and tlie os 
carpi ulnare (20). The metacarpus (17) consists originally 
of two bones but they are fused or consolidated at the ex- 
tremities. The first digit, thumb or false wing bone (16) is 
a styloid-shaped phalanx. The second, middle or large digit 
(18), consists of two phalanges, the second phalanx (34), and 
the third or rather rudimentary finger (19). 

The pelvis is voluminous and very strong. The three pairs 
of bones composing it are: the ilium (25) ; the ischium (30) ; 
and the pubis (36). 

The ilium is long and is consolidated with the last two 
dorsal, the lumbar and the sacral vertebrae. It is excavated 
on the internal face to receive the kidneys. 

The ischium forms a part of the sides of the pelvic cavity. 

The pubis is long and thin and extends along the inferior 
border of the ischium. 

The femur or thigh bone (35) articulates superiorly with 
the ilium by the cotyloid cavity. This cavity is provided 
with a foramen or opening at its bottom which passes through 
the bone. The femur articulates inferiorly with the patella 
(46), the fibula (43) and with the tibia (47). The fibula 
articulates superiorly with the external condyle of the femur 
and the head of the tibia and inferiorly is consolidated with 
the tibia. The tibia terminates below in two condyles which 
articulate with the proximal end of the metatarsus, (48). The 



22 POULTRY DISEASES 

metatarsus terminates inferiorly with three articular sur- 
faces or facets which articulate with the three principal digits, 
(49), (50) (53). A conical eminence is noted near the inferior 
third which turns backwards and is the base of the spur. Most 
fowls have four digits. The os metatarsale or rudimentary 
digit (51) projects backward and is made up of three pha- 
langes. The second or internal toe (49) is provided with three 
phalanges, the third or middle toe (53) is provided with four 
phalanges, and the external or fourth toe (50) is provided 
with five phalanges. 

VISCERAL ANATOMY OF THE HEN 

THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 
Mouth 

The mouth cavity is characterized by the changing of the 
jaw bones into the beak. There are no teeth. The tongue is 
shaped like an Indian arrow, with prominent, rather hard 
and sharp pointed papillae, along its posterior border. 

There is an upper and lower beak. The upper beak is pro- 
vided with sharp free edges. There are no lips or cheeks. 
The upper jaw forms the base of the upper beak, and the 
lower jaw forms the base of the lower beak. The beaks are 
covered by a continuation of the epidermis. The beak is 
formed of horn-like material that is rather hard and resists 
wear to which it is subjected. 

In many water birds, as geese and ducks, a thin dermoid 
structure is formed over the edges of the beak, in which 
numerous branches of the trigeminus terminate in taste buds. 

In chickens the beak terminates in a sharp point, while 
in water birds, as geese and ducks, the beak is fiat, spatula- 
like, and grooved transversely at its free margin. The roof 
of the mouth (hard palate) is provided with a slit that ex- 
tends antero-posteriorly, and is about one inch in length ; 
this is the posterior nares. There are on the hard palate four 
or more cross bars, each of which is provided with hard fili- 
form papillae that point backward. The tongue presents a 
flat surface superiorly, and is covered by a thick strata of 
corneous epithelium. The dorsum (upper surface) is pro- 
vided with many small filiform papillae, that point back- 
wards. The body of the tongue is made up of muscles and 
connective tissue. The tongue of swimming birds is thinner 
than that of chickens. The tongue is an organ possessing 
both of the senses, taste and touch. The transverse row of 
filiform papillae of the posterior portion of the roof of the 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



23 



mouth marks the border between the oral and pharyngeal 
cavities. Both palatine and maxillary salivary glands are 
present. The parotid, submaxillary and sublingual glands 
are present also in some species of birds, but are rather rudi- 
mentary. They have ducts through which their secretions are 
discharged into the mouth. 

Pharynx 

The mouth cavity terminates in the pharynx. The pharynx 
is covered by a mucous membrance. There is a transverse 
ridge, provided with filiform papillae pointing backwards, 




Fig. 3. Visceral Organs of the Right Side of a Fowl. 
The right abdominal and thoracic walls have been removed; 6, duodenal loop; 7, 
pancreas; 8, small intestines; 10, rectum; 11, ceca; 12, right lung; 12a, right lobe of 
the liver; 13, base of the heart; 17, kidney; IS, the gall bladder located on the right 
lobe of the liver. The gizzard is not visible from the right side. 



and located on the supero-posterior portion of the larynx, that 
marks the posterior edge of the pharynx. 

The pharynx communicates with the mouth cavity anteri- 
orly and with the esophagus and larynx posteriorly. 

Esophagus 

The esophagus is a muscular tube lying posterior to the 
trachea. The first portion passes over to the right side as it 
reaches the anterior surface of the breast, where it forms an 
expansion called the crop. The second portion enters the 
thorax through the anterior thoracic opening and occupies a 



24 



POULTRY DISEASES 



space between the lungs and passes over the base of the 
heart. Some areas of the mucous membrane of the crop 
contain mucous glands. The crop is simple in the fowl, form- 
ing two symmetrical sacs in the pigeon and spindle-formed 
in ducks and geese. In the pigeon during and shortly after 
hatching time, in both sexes, it produces a milky fluid which 
serves as nourishment for the young. The esophagus termi- 
nates in the stomach. 

Stomach 

Some anatomists call the proventriculus the pars glandula- 
ris and the gizzard the pars muscularis. The pars glandularis 




Fig. 4. Visceral Organs of the Left Side of a Fowl. 
The left abdominal and thoracic walls have been removed; 4, the proventriculus; 5, 
gizzard; 6, extreme end of the duodenal loop; 7, pancreas; 8, the small intestines; 12, 
lungs (it will be noted that the lungs occupy the superior part of the thoracic cavity 
and that there is no distinct pleural sac, but that the lungs push up between the ribs; 
in fact, the ribs are covered on the inner and lateral sides by the lungs) ; 12a, the 
liver; 13, base of the heart; 17, kidney; 18, diaphragm. 



(proventriculus) lies dorsal to, and midway between, the two 
lobes of the liver, taking an oblique course to the left. It 
terminates in the gizzard. Its mucous surface is studded by 
papilla-like projections, which furnish openings to glands of 
the type of those in the fundus of the stomach of the horse 
and other quadrupeds. 

Gizzard 

The pars muscularis is round, muscular and flattened lat- 
erally and lies to the right and posterior to the proventriculus. 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



25 



It lies partly behind and partly between the lobes of the liver 
and consists of a hollow organ. It is somewhat contracted 
at the sides and stands obliquely in the abdominal cavity. 
In gramniverous birds the walls are very thick, being made 
up for the most part of two powerful muscles. The cavity 
is lined with a very thick stratified epithelium. These heavy 
horny pads form grinding surfaces. Certain portions of the 
mucous lining contain mucous glands, which by some anato- 
mists have been regarded as modified pyloric glands of mam- 
mals. 

The small intestine originates on the same side of the giz- 




Fig. 5. Section Through the Median Line of a Two-Pound Pullet. 
No. 1, the stump of the first portion of the esophagus; 2, left wall of the crop; 3, 
second portion of the esophagus located just below the vertebra; 4, the proventriculus 
lying anterolaterally to the gizzard, superoposterior to the liver and to the left of 
the spleen; 5, the gizzard; 6, duodenal loop; 7, pancreas; 8, floating portion of the 
small intestines; 9, ovary; 10, rectum; 11, ceca; 12a, liver; 13, heart. 



zard that the proventriculus enters and about one-half inch 
distant. 

Small Intestine 

The first portion of the small intestine is called the duode- 
num, which forms a long loop called the duodenal loop. This 
loop passes obliquely to the right side and proceeds along the 
outer right abdominal wall, passing round toward the right 
side, following along the posterior abdominal wall, where the 
terminal portion of the loop rests. The remaining portion of 
the small intestine forms a thick coil supported by a mesen- 



26 POULTRY DISEASES 

tery and occupies the space between the two large abdominal 
air sacs. 

Large Intestine 

The large intestine is very short. At the point where the 
small intestine terminates in the large intestine, there is 
given off two long blind pouches — the ceca. These blind 
pouches are directed toward the head. The ceca in pigeons 
are comparatively short, while in fowls and ducks and geese 
they are quite long. The major portion of the ceca is narrow, 
becoming larger in calibre near the blind extremity. The 
large intestine or colon extends backward in a straight line 
with the under surface of the vertebrae and terminates in the 
cloaca. 

The entire length of the alimentary tract in fowls is five 
to six times, and in geese and ducks four to five times, the 
length of the body. 

Cloaca 

The cloaca is a sacculation with greater diameter than the 
large intestine and communicates anteriorly with the large 
intestine and opens to the external world through the anus. 
It receives the feces, urinary secretion and the eggs from 
the oviduct in the female. The vas deferens of the male 
opens through a papilla on the anal mucous membrane. At 
the point where the rectum (large intestine) empties into 
the cloaca, there is a strong, oblique fold of mucous mem- 
brane. The ureters empty at the summit of small papillae 
midway between the vasa deferens. The mouth of the oviduct 
is a slit. In the males of ducks, geese and swans there is 
present a copulatory organ, somewhat resembling the penis 
of mammals. 

A small round or pear-shaped sac called the bursa of Fabri- 
cus is located in the dorsal wall of the cloaca. The cavity 
communicates, through a short canal, with the posterior bor 
der of the cloaca close to the anal wall. The mucous mem- 
brane lining the bursa contains glands. The bursa is larger 
in the young, but decreases in size with age. It apparently 
reaches its greatest size in chickens at about four months of 
age, at which time it may measure two to three centimeters 
by one and one-half centimeters. By ten or eleven months 
of age it has become quite rudimentary. Its function is not 
known. Glands similar to those of mammals are located in 
the intestines. 

Liver 

The liver is the largest gland in the body and consists of 
two lobes — a right and a left. The right lobe is somewhat 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



27 



larger than the left, in most birds, except in the turkey and 
guinea, where they are of equal size. The liver lies behind 
the heart, the apex of which extends into the fissure between 
the anterior portion of its two lobes. The inferior surfaces 




Fig. 6. Transverse Section Through the Thoracic 
Region, Looking Backward. 
No. 1, spinal cord; 2, esophagus; 3, trachea; 4, skin; 
5, pectoral muscles; 6, lungs; 7, heart; 8, breastbone; 
10. liver. 



of the liver are convex and covered by a layer of visceral 
peritoneum. The two lobes are held together by a small liga- 
ment. A filiform ligament extends from the inner surface 
of the sternum and becomes lost in the serous covering of 



28 POULTRY DISEASES 

the liver. This ligament assists in holding the liver in posi- 
tion. Most species of birds are provided with a gall bladder, 
which is located on the posterior surface of the right lobe of 
the liver. In birds without a gall bladder (pigeons, guineas) 
the main gall ducts of the two lobes of the liver unite and 
empty as one duct into the duodenum. In birds having a 
gall bladder the ductus hepaticus passes from the left lobe 
of the liver to the duodenum, while the bile from the right 
lobe empties into the gall bladder, from whence the gall is 
carried to .the duodenum through the ductus cysticus. 

In fowls the ducts of the liver and pancreas empty into 
the duodenum in the following order : First, the ductus 
pancreaticus, from the pancreas ; second, the ductus hepati- 
cus, directly from the left lobe of the liver; and, third, the 
ductus cysticus, from the gall bladder of the right lobe of 
the liver. In ducks the ductus hepaticus and ductus cysticus 
are united. This common duct empties into the duodenum 
close to the pylorus. The two branches of the pancreatic 
duct empty close behind the hepatic duct. In the pigeon 
the ductus hepaticus is double and extends from the left 
lobe, while a third duct carries the bile from the right lobe. 
(Gadow.) There are apparently three pancreatic ducts in 
this species. 

Pancreas 

The pancreas is a pale, long, yellowish, lobulated gland, 
sometimes called the abdominal salivary gland, and lies be- 
tween the two branches of the long duodenal loop. In some 
species of birds the gland is divided into three distinct lobes, 
each provided with its own duct, which carries the secretion 
to the duodenum. 

Spleen 

The structure of the spleen is the same as in other animals. 
It is reddish brown in color in the fowl, shaped like a horse 
chestnut, and lies to the right in an angle formed by the 
proventriculus, liver and gizzard. Its shape varies in the 
different species of birds. In some it is globular, while in 
others lenticular. 

THE RESPIRATORY TRACT 

Nasal Cavities 

The nasal cavities are short and narrow. The two nasal- 
passages are separated by a cartilaginous septum and, in 
part, by a bony wall. In ducks and geese the external nasal 
opening is found toward the base of the beak. Through the 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 20 

openings one can see through from one nostril to the other 
(nares perviae). The external openings are either round or 
slit-like. They are often surrounded by a thin dermoid struc- 
ture and a border of peculiar feathers. Each nostril is pro- 
vided with a turbinated bone divided into three parts, which 
may be considered as three turbinated bones. The middle 
turbinated bone is the largest and the lower one the smallest. 
A small, flat gland, peculiar to birds (fowls, ducks and 
geese), lies on the frontal bone in close proximity to the mesial 
corner of the eye. A duct extends from this gland forward 
and empties into the nostrils. The posterior nares opens into 
the mouth cavity through a slit-like opening in the roof of 
the mouth. 

Larynx 

Air passes through the nostrils and pharynx into the su- 
perior larynx. The superior larynx is a musculo-cartilaginous 
valve located at the superior extremity of the trachea. There 
is no epiglottis. A ring-like cartilage, the cricoid, is located 
at the base of the larynx. This forms the principal support. 
This cartilage is divided into four parts, namely, two side 
parts, one unequal ventral part and an unequal dorsal part. 
Some of these parts at times and in some species are fused. 
The arytenoid cartilages, three in number, are flexible and 
joined to the superior part of the cricoid. These cartilages 
bound supero-posteriorly the entrance of the larynx. At 
times the arytenoids become partially bony. 

The walls are smooth and in the superior larynx there 
are no vocal cords. This organ is sometimes called the larynx 
cranialis, in contradistinction to the true larynx or larynx 
caudalis. The true larynx is located at the bifurcation of 
the trachea into the right and left bronchi; it is provided 
with delicate vocal cords. This organ is absent in voiceless 
birds. It is sometimes called the larynx bronchio-trachealis. 
In fowls it is flattened laterally. The last rings lie close 
together in fowls, but are connected in pigeons and more or 
less completely fused in geese. This structure is called the 
tympanum (drum). A bony, arrow-like passage is found 
between the tympanum and the opening into the bronchi. 
This bears a small half-moon-shaped fold, which is concave 
from above. On either side of this passageway there is lo- 
cated an elastic membrane, the mebrana tympaniformis in- 
terna, which forms the inner wall of the adjacent bronchus. 
Laterally and between the tympanum and the two bronchial 
rings on either side there is a membrane called the mem- 
brana tympaniformis externa. Singing birds possess a well 



30 POULTRY DISEASES 

developed muscle which in fowls, ducks and geese is rudi- 
mentary. In the male duck the inferior extremity is en- 
larged into a large sac, called the bulla tympaniformis. The 
left bronchus has a perceptible share in the formation of 
this bulla. This bulla is a resonance box. 

Trachea 

The trachea consists of closed rings round in shape and 
connected by short connecting bands. In fowls these rings are 
cartilaginous, while in singing birds they may be partly bony. 
The trachea is moved by means of two muscles. 

Lungs 

The lungs are two in number, red to pink in color and 
firmly connected with the costal wall. The ribs indent the 
lungs, allowing a part of the outer surface to project slightly 
between them. The ventral free surface is turned towards 
the body cavity and is covered by the rudimentary diaphragm. 
The rudimentary diaphragm contains some muscular struc- 
ture and is attached to the ribs and vertebrae. The pointed 
anterior lobe extends to the first rib. The posterior part 
terminates in a broad surface and extends back as far as the 
anterior end of the kidneys. The bronchi communicate with 
the air sacs by openings from the posterior border. The two 
bronchi are broadened after they enter the lung, which is at 
the beginning of the second third and on the ventral sur- 
face. They lose their cartilaginous rings and continue as 
duct-like channels to the extreme posterior edge, where they 
terminate into cartilaginous rings called the ostium caudale, 
from which point they communicate with the ventral or large 
abdominal air sacs. Each bronchus gives off a ventral 
bronchus, called the bronchus diaphragmaticus caudalis, 
through which the air is conducted to the ostium intermedium 
caudale and into the caudal cella thoracica diaphragmatica. 
Each bronchus gives off lateral bronchi which extend to the 
ventral surface of the lung. They form blind pouches or air 
sacs (alveoli) near the surface of the lung. 

Two bronchial systems take their origin from the main 
bronchus, the ventral and the dorsal. The bronchus clavicu- 
laris arises from the dorso-medial wall of the main bronchus 
a short distance after it enters the lung and before it broad- 
ens out. This bronchus gives off a large branch, called the 
bronchus cervicalis. It bends round the base of the main 
bronchus and the pulmonary artery and supplies the dorsal 
surface of the lung, and through the ostium claviculare it 
supplies air to the air sacs on the respective side (dorsal air 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 81 

sac). It terminates close to the middle of the lung, where it 
communicates, through a small opening, with the diaphrag- 
matic air sac. 

The bronchus cervicalis extends forward in the direction of 
the original trunk and anteriorly communicates with the cer- 
vical air sac through the ostium cervicale. 

There is also given off from the main bronchus the bronchus 
cervicularis dorsalis and medialis. The first extends with a 
few bronchi into the clavicular air sac. The bronchus dia- 
phragmaticus cranialis extends laterally, dorsally and medi- 
ally, and terminates in the thoracic air sac through the ostium 
intermedium craniale. The bronchus caudalis originates 
from the dorso-median wall and extends to the caudal and 
middle portions of the lung. There is given off another 
bronchus called the bronchus lateralis from this lateral bron- 
chus. 

There extend from the main bronchus several bronchi in 
the medial half of the lung. There are six to ten dorsal 
bronchi (bronchi dorsales). Numerous perpendicular, nar- 
row, thick- walled tubes lying close to each other are given off 
from the dorsal wall of the main bronchus and other bronchi 
mentioned. These tubes have been called the "lung pipes," 
which by lateral pressure become five- or six-sided tubes. The 
mass of the lungs are made up of these tubes. These tubes 
terminate near the surface of the lung. The ends of these 
tubes, which lie at right angles to the main channel, form 
sacculations somewhat simulating the air sacs of mammals. 
Connective tissue, through which pass blood vessels and nerves, 
fills in the space between these lung tubules. 

Air Sacs 

The air sacs are blaclderlike structures with delicate walls. 
The sacs are lined with a mucous membrane which is a con- 
tinuation of the mucous membrane of the bronchi. They are 
connected with the bronchial tubes but do not communicate 
with each other. They also communicate with air spaces in 
m?ny of the bones of the trunk and limbs. Bronchial tubes 
extending to the surface of the lung communicate directly 
with these air cells. The air sacs continue partly into the 
bones and line the walls of these spaces. These air spaces, 
some of which are of considerable size, add to the bulk of the 
body of the bird without increasing its weight. They reach 
their highest state of development in the fliers and swimmers 
and are less developed in running birds. The air sacs are as 
follows : The anterior thoracic air sac, from which arises the 



32 POULTRY DISEASES 

axillary cell which extends to the humerus, breastbone and 
ribs. This is the only air sac that is single, the balance exist- 
ing- in pairs. The cervical air sacs lie on the last cervical 
vertebra and extend into the cervical vertebra. The infero- 
posterior thoracic air sac (ventral, phrenic or diaphrag- 
matic). The supero-posterior thoracic air sacs (dorsal phrenic 
or diaphragmatic air sacs). These air sacs or cells lie be 
tween the lungs and the abdominal viscera at the rudimen- 
tary diaphragm and aid in keeping separate the thoracic and 
abdominal viscera. The abdominal air sacs, which are by far 
the larger of all the air sacs, extend from the anterior to near 
the posterior border of the abdominal cavity. Part of the 
abdominal viscera lies between them. They extend to the 
pelvis and thigh bones. The cavities of the head receive their 
air from the nasal passages. 

Thymus Gland 

The thymus gland is present in young birds and is located 
along each jugular vein in the neck. The parts of this gland 
are elongated and lobulated. 

Carotid Glands 

These are two round or oblong glands abundantly supplied 
by blood vessels and lie at the base of the carotid arteries. 

Adrenal Glands 

These small reddish-like bodies lie at the anterior end of the 
kidneys. 

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM 

The heart is located in the thoracic cavity with the base 
directed in a cranio-dorsal direction. The apex directed 
downward and backward lies in the anterior portion of the 
fissure formed by the two lobes of the liver. It is surrounded 
by a pericardial sac which is often attached by means of con- 
nective tissue to the adjacent air sac. The structure of the 
heart is similar to that of mammals, except that the tricuspid 
valves of the right auriculo-ventricular opening are replaced 
with a strong double muscular plate which extends from the 
outer chamber wall. The papillary muscles are absent in the 
right chamber. The aorta is given off from the left ventricle 
and the pulmonary artery from the right ventricle as in mam- 
mals. The bicuspid valve frequently is provided with three 
points. The venae cavae (two anterior and one posterior) 
empty into the right auricle. The pulmonary veins empty 
through one common opening into the left auricle. 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



33 




The structure of the blood vessels are the same as in mam- 
mals. The pulmonary artery emerges from the right ventri- 
cle, is short and divides into a right and a left branch, which 
go to the respective lungs. 

The aorta emerges from the left ventricle, is short and 
gives off the right and left coronaries 
and bifurcates into the brachioce- 
phalic dexter (the right branch) and 
the brachiocephalic sinister (the left 
branch). The brachiocephalic dexter 
gives off the posterior aorta which 
winds round the right bronchus and 
passes along the lower portions of the 
vertebrae. It then bifurcates to form 
the right carotid and right subclavian 
artery. Farther along the left and 
right carotids communicate and at 
this point the thyroid gland is located. 
The brachiocephalic sinister bifurcates 
into the left carotid and the left sub- 
clavian artery. 

In some species of birds the two 
carotids unite and form one carotid 
called the carotid primaria. The 
carotids give off branches to adjacent 
parts as they pass toward the head, 
given off, which supplies the vertebrae. At the level of 
the head each carotid divides into two branches, one sup- 
plying the brain, eyeball and adjacent parts, and the other 
the remainder of the cranial structures. The two sub- 
clavian arteries each give off a sterno-clavicularis which sup- 
plies the anterior sternal region up to the shoulder, where 
it divides into arteries which supply the breast and the arm. 
The thoracic cranialis is also given off from the brachio- 
cephalic as well as the thoracic caudalis, the latter supplying 
the large breast muscle. At about this point there is also a 
branch, the internal mammary, given off and which follows 
along the inner border of the sternum. The axillary artery 
may be considered a continuation of the brachiocephalic; it 
supplies the muscles of the wing system. 

The posterior aorta extends along the lower borders of the 
vertebra as far as the pelvis. It gives off on its way inter- 
costals, which pass, one along the posterior border of each 
rib and are disposed of similar to those of mammals. It also 
gives off a celiac axis supplying the stomach, liver and spleen, 
two mesenteric branches (mesentericus cranialis and m. 



Fig. 7. Heart of Fowl with 
ju Its Main Branches. 
f 1, cartoid artery; 2, sterno- 
clavicularus artery; 3, axil- 
'lary artery; 4, thoracic cran- 
ialis artery; 5, thoracic cau- 
dalis; 6, posterior aorta; LA, 
left auricle; RA, right auri- 
cle; LV, left ventricle; RV, 
right ventricle. 



A vertebral artery is 



34 POULTRY DISEASES 

cauclalis) supplying the mesentery and small intestine. 
The posterior aorta also gives off lumbar • arteries and 
renals, the latter supplying the kidneys, also arteries to the 
testes (testicular) in the male and ovarian arteries supplying 
the ovary in the female. At the hind extremities there is 
given off the external iliac at a line near the junction of the 
anterior and the middle thirds of the kidney. This supplies 
the pelvic and outer muscles of that region. The aorta di- 
vides into two branches, the ischiatica, and also sends an 
artery back along the under side of the caudal vertebra (the 
sacralis media). The ischial artery, in company with the 
ischial nerve, passes through the foramen ischiaticum, giv- 
ing off branches to the muscles of that region. 

The pulmonary veins, two in number, originate from a short 
stem (pulmonary artery) which springs from the right ven- 
tricle. These veins furnish the lungs with functional blood, 
which is returned to the heart through pulmonary veins en- 
tering the left auricle. 

There are three venous trunks carrying the venous blood 
from the body and extremities. These are a left and a right 
anterior vena cava (vena cava cranialis) and a posterior vena 
cava (vena cava caudalis). These three vessels empty into 
the right auricle. Each anterior vena cava receives the jugu- 
lar and subclavian vein of its respective side. The right 
jugular is larger than the left. They are located ventrally 
to the skull, where they anastamose through an oblique vein. 
(It is at this point that a bird is stuck in slaughtering.) At the 
inferior portion they receive blood from the vertebral vessels. 
They receive branches from the head (the cranial vein), also 
neck and back vein. The subclavian receives the blood from 
the veins of the breast and wing (sterno-clavicularis and 
thoracic-cranialis and caudalis, mammary and axillary veins). 
The subclavian empties into the anterior vena cava. 

The posterior vena cava is short and receives the blood from 
the external and internal iliacs, hepatic, renal hypogastric and 
coccygeal veins. It also receives the blood from the porta 
hepatis, which collects blood from the abdominal viscera, es- 
pecially the intestines. 

THE BLOOD OF NORMAL FOWL 

The blood of the fowl is made up of organized and unor- 
ganized elements. The unorganized part is plasma and the 
organized cells. The cells are elliptical-shaped nucleated red 
blood cells measuring 7x12 microns, oval nucleated throm- 
bocytes, and white blood cells. The white blood cells consist 
of mast cells, eosinophiles, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, 
large mononuclear leukocytes and lymphocytes. The red 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



35 



blood cells number about 3,500,000 per cmm., the white blood 
cells 30,000 per cmm., the thrombocytes 50,000 per cmm. 

The lymphocytes constitute fifty-four per cent, the large 
mononuclear leukocytes twelve per cent, the polymorphonu- 
clear leukocytes twenty-five per cent, the eosinophiles six per 
cent, and the mast three per cent. 

LYMPH VESSELS 

Lymph vessels are numerous. Those of the hind extremity 
empty into the veins on the border between the tail and the 
pelvis. There are very few lymph nodes. At the entrance 




Fig. 8. Blood Vessels of the Pelvis and Thigh of the Fowl. 
a, posterior aorta; a, b, external iliac artery; c, ischiadic artery; e, the ureter; 
f, the ischiadic nerve; g, the main artery of the thigh; h, the femoral vein; i, 
the internal iliac vein; j, the external iliac vein; k, the middle sacral artery. 



of the thoracic cavity there are located two or more small 
lymph glands. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three mem- 
branes as in mammals. The brain is divided into the cere- 
brum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The pons varolii is 
either lacking or at most consists of a few narrow oblique 
fibers. The cerebral hemispheres are separated superiorly 
by a deep longitudinal fissure. There are no convolutions. 



36 POULTRY DISEASES 

The fissure lateralis is well marked and is located laterally 
about the posterior border of the anterior third of the cere- 
brum. The epiphysis, a small body, is located between the 
hemispheres and at the posterior portion of the longitudinal 
fissure. The olfactory nerve consists of two conical bodies 
projecting forward from between the anterior portion of the 
hemispheres. The hypophysis (infundibulum), eruri cerebri 
and optic chiasm are similar to those of mammals. The cor- 
pus callosum is lacking or at most marked by only a few 
diagonal fibers. The hippocampus and the septum lucidum of 
mammals are lacking. The lateral sinuses are well developed. 
The lateral walls are thin and the grey matter small in quan- 
tity. At the base of each of the sinuses there is found an 
eminence which corresponds to the corpus striatum of mam- 
mals. At the postero-inferior portion of the cerebral hemis- 
pheres there are rounded eminences called the sight emi- 
nences. They are bounded on the dorsal side by the bridge 
of Sylvius. Their cavity communicates with the aqueductus 
cerebri which connects the third and fourth ventricles. 

The cranial nerves number twelve, as in mammals. The 
olfactory (first cranial nerve) leaves the cranial cavity 
through a foramen which represents the perforated plate of 
mammals. It passes through the dorso-median part of the eye 
cavity, thence into the nasal cavity, where its fibers terminate 
in the mucous membrane. 

The optic nerve (second cranial) forms the chiasm at the 
base of the brain. At this X the two nerves of sight cross. 
The motores oculorum (third cranial), the pathetici (fourth 
cranial), and abducens (sixth cranial) are distributed to the 
muscles of the eyeball. The trifacial (fifth cranial) gives off 
three branches, the ophthalmicus, the maxillaris and the man- 
dibularis. The branch corresponding to the lingual of mam- 
mals is lacking. The facial (seventh cranial) is not well de- 
veloped. The auditory (eighth cranial) extends into the 
labyrinth of the ear. The glossopharyngeal (ninth cranial) 
gives off a branch extending to the tongue ; the remainder of 
the nerve is distributed similar to that in mammals. 

The vagus (tenth cranial) and the spinal accessory (elev- 
enth cranial) intertwine themselves in the proximity of the 
skull. The course and distribution of the vagus is similar to 
that in mammals. The hypo-glossal (twelfth cranial) is the 
motor nerve of the tongue. 

The cerebellum or lesser brain is located in the posterior 
part of the cranial cavity. Numerous oblique fissures mark 
the upper surface, dividing it into a leaf -like structure. The 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



37 




fourth ventricle is located under the cerebellum. Lateral 
pedicles attach it to the lower structures. The medulla ob- 
longata is broader than the spinal cord. It connects the 
spinal cord with the brain. 

The spinal cord terminates posteriorly in a thread-like 
termination without forming a 
eauda equina as in mammals. There 
are cervical and lumbar segments ^ 

from which are given off nerves for 
the wings and the hind extremities. 
The dorsal segment is marked by 
an enlargement. The central canal 
as well as the mode of entrance and 
exit of the fibers is the sam'e as in 
mammals. 

The number of nerves that are 
given off from the spinal cord de- 
pends upon the number of vertebral 
segments. The spinal nerves are 
given off in pairs ; each nerve orig- 
inates from one dorsal and one 
ventral root, as in mammals; one 
nerve for each side of the body. 
The spinal ganglion is located on 
the dorsal root. Each spinal nerve 
divides into a small dorsal nerve 
supplying the muscles and other 
structures in the region above the 
level of the spinal column and a 
larger ventral branch supplying the 
body walls below the level. The 
spinal nerves have been placed in 
four groups, as follows; cervical 
(neck), dorsal (back), lumbar 
(loin), and caudal (tail) nerves. 
The wings receive their nerve sup- 
ply from the brachial plexus. The 
brachial plexus is made up of the 
last two or three cervical nerves 
and the first one or two dorsal 
nerves. The structures in the pel- 
vie region are supplied from 
branches of the ventral branches 
of the lumbar nerves. ' The nerves 

of the shoulder and pelvis are essentially the same as in mam- 
mals. The nerves of the skin and tail are small. 




Fig. 9. Brain and Eyeball of the 

Fowl, Slightly Enlarged. 

A — 1, the olfactory nerves; 2, 
the optic nerve; 3, pituitary 
gland, slightly dislodged poste- 
riorly; 4, optic lobes; 5, medulla 
oblongata; 6, optic chiasm; 7, 
right cerebrum; 8, eyeball; 9, 
sclera; 10, cornea. 

B — 1, optic nerve; 2, its sheath. 

C — 4, optic lobes; 5, medulla 
oblongata; 7a, right and 7b, left, 
cerebral hemispheres; 8, cerebel- 
lum; 9, fissure longitudinalis; 10, 
fissure transversalis. 



38 POULTRY DISEASES 

The sympathetic nerves have their origin at the cranio- 
cervical ganglion which lies at the base of the skull. From 
this ganglion fine filaments are sent to most of the cranial 
nerves as well as connecting branches. The sympathetic trunk 
extends along the cervical vertebra, occupying an oblique 
canal. It exchanges filaments with the cervical nerves. It 
continues on either side of the base of the vertebra through 
the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Branches from these 
trunks go to form the splanchnic nerve system supplying the 
visceral organs of the abdominal cavity. The right and left 
trunks finally unite, forming the ganglion coccygeum. 

ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE 

The Eyes 

The eyes are rather large in proportion to the size of the 
body. The sense of sight is well developed. The eyes stand to 
the side of the head in the domestic birds. The orbital cavities 
are separated laterally by a bony septum (the septum inter- 
orbitale), but are not completely surrounded by bone. The 
lower eyelid is the larger and often incloses a small cartilagi- 
nous plate. The lower lid is more freely movable than the up- 
per. The third eyelid (membrana nictitans) is well developed. 
A special muscle draws it from the inner canthus of the 
eye over the ball. There are no tarsal glands as in mammals. 
The muscles of the eyelids are of the smooth variety and in 
the place of eyelashes there may be found minute feathers. 
The gland of the eyelid lies on the nasal side and is often 
larger than the lacrimal (tear) gland. Its secretion is poured 
out onto the third eyelid. The tear gland (lacrimal) lies in 
the angle close to the temple. The tear gland is small and 
has one or more ducts emptying into the conjunctival sac at 
the temple side of the eyebalL The lacrimal sac and lacrimal 
duct carrying the tears to the nasal cavity are similar as those 
of mammals. The eyeball is made up of three coverings. The 
cornea covers the anterior portion of the eye and the sclera 
the outer remaining portion of the eyeball. The sclera is made 
up of small overlapping scales, connective tissue and a car- 
tilaginous cup extending from the optic nerve at the posterior 
pole to the equator of the globe. The scleral ring is at the 
anterior border of this cartilage. The anterior chamber of 
the eye is large. The middle layer of the posterior portion 
of the eyeball is called the choroid, and is rich in pigment 
and blood vessels. The retina forms the inner coat and is rich 
in a dark pigment. The ciliary body consists of many folds. 
The ciliary muscle consists of oblique fibers arranged in three 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



39 




bundles. Numerous wedge-shaped folds rich in blood vessels 
and containing pigment are found at the point of entrance of 
the optic nerve. In some birds these folds extend forward 
and are attached to the lens capsule. The iris forms a parti- 
tion between the anterior and posterior chambers and is per- 
forated in the center by a round hole, the pupillary opening. 
It contains a dark pigment on the posterior or lens side. This 
color or pigment gives the color to the eye. The yellow color- 
ing of the eye is caused by the fat pigment, lipochrome. The 
widening and especially the intense narrowing of the pupil 
is in part due to oblique muscles' (sphincter pupillare). The 
ciliary muscles are quite active. The retina does not contain 
blood vessels and the structure is similar to that of mammals. 
The crystalline lens in birds is rather flat- 
tened on the anterior side except in birds of 
nocturnal habits, in which it is very convex. 
It differs from the lens of mammals in that 
the lens epithelium develops into fibers in 
the equatorial portion and are arranged al- 
most perpendicular to the axis of the eye- 
ball. These are located near the ring pads. 
The portion for the passage of light is rela- 
tively small. 

J Fig. 

The Organs of Hearing 

The outer ear is lacking. A skin fold sur- 
rounds the external opening of the ear in 
chickens and is called the ear lobe, while in 
other birds the outer ear opening may be 
surrounded by peculiarly formed feathers. 
The outer canal is short and contains an ear 
gland. This canal is lined with the contin- 
uation of the skin and connects with the 
ear drum. The tympanic membrane is convex externally and 
is stretched in a bony ring. The ear drum forms an irregular 
cavity which is in relation to the air cavities of the skull and 
with the bony and cartilaginous ear trumpet in connection 
with the pharyngeal cavity. The columella only is present, 
which may be compared to the stirrup of mammals. The inner 
ear consists of a bony labyrinth surrounded by a spongy bone 
substance. In it is distinguished the vestibule, the three half- 
circled canals and the cochlea. The vestibule is a small irreg- 
ular cavity which communicates with the cochlea and through 
the fenestra vestibularis with the drum cavity. The endo- 
lymph of the vestibule contains microscopic crystals of cal- 
cium carbonate. The semicircular canals are relatively larger 



10. SE C T I O N 

Through the Eye 
of a Hen. 
1, cornea; 2, an- 
terior chamber; 3. 
posterior chamber; 

4, vitreous chamber; 

5, iris; 6, retina; 7, 
choroid coat; 8, op- 
tic nerve; 9, sclero- 
tic coat; 10, scleral 
ring; 11, lens; 12, 
pectin; 13, corpus 
ciliaris. 




40 POULTRY DISEASES 

and thicker walled than in mammals. The ampulla are the 
upper and back canals with bony walls. The cochlea is a 
tube thinly covered at the blind end and contains the cuticular 
cochlea. At its point it is broadened for the formation of the 
lagena. The cavity of the cochlea is divided by the spiral 
walls, the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani. These walls 
are visible in the vestibulum so that they may be 
seen at the beginning of the cochlea. 

Organs of Smell 

The olfactory nerve, after merging from the 
cranium through the olfactory foramen passes 
down and spreads out, terminating in filaments 
on the mucous membrane of the nasal passage. 

Organs of Taste 
Fig. 11. Coch- 

L rTnth ^f B I" The tongue is considered the taste organ. In 

hen most birds the thick stratified squamous epithel- 

2 Semicircular ^ dorsal surface is little adapted for taste per- 

canais; 3, am- ception. The ninth nerve is the nerve of taste. 

cochiVa- 5,' The lingual branch of the trigeminus is missing. 

fenestra vesu- Filaments of the first and second branches of the 

bularis; 6, fe- . _ . 

nestra cochlea- trifacial, which is broadened in the mucous mem- 
ns " brane of the hard palate, furnish taste filaments 

to that part. Taste buds are then found on both 
the tongue and hard palate. 

Organs of Touch 

The organs of touch are the skin and feathers. The skin 
consists of an epidermis and dermis. The skin contains no 
sweat glands. In fowls and many other birds there is pro- 
vided a tail (rump) gland. This is a tubular gland which 
secretes an oily substance that is carried to the surface 
through a common duct. The bird, by obtaining some of this 
oil substance on its beak, oils the feathers. This oil preserves 
the feathers from becoming dry and brittle and prevents loss 
from weather conditions. In a few birds special touch and 
taste perception is provided by the edges and point of the 
beak. The dermis (corium) is well developed and furnishes 
ample muscular means for the raising and lowering of the 
feathers. The corium is thin. Papillary bodies are present 
only in a few areas, as the region of the eyes and on the toes. 
Thickened epithelial elevations are noted on the ventral por- 
tion of the toes, where there is great wear as a result of contact 
with the ground. 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 41 

The muscles of the skin are well developed in certain parts 
of the body. They are divided into primary and secondary 
muscles. The secondary muscles are branches of the skeletal 
muscles. On the feathered parts of the skin the epidermis is 
thin, rather dry on the surface and is provided with continu- 
ous scale-like layers. The stratum corneum is thick on the 
horny sheath of the beak, on the dorsal surfaces of the toes, the 
spurs of the cock, and the scaly plates of the shanks. The 
feathers covering the surface of the body represent a special 
epidermal formation, analogous to the hair of animals. Feath- 
ers occur over the whole surface of the body except on cer- 
tain parts of the under surface, and the neck, shanks and 
toes. Some breeds are provided with a row on the outer edge 
of the shanks and outer toe. The corium is not very rich in 
blood vessels. It forms a thick net-like structure in the comb, 
gills and similar appendages of chickens and turkeys. The 
only gland that is present is the tail (rump) gland (glandula 
uropygii). The gland is round or oval and in fowls the size 
of a pea. In geese it is the size of a hazelnut. A median 
septum divides the gland into two halves ; at times there may 
be found two ducts leading from this gland, but there is 
usually only one. The gland is largest in swimming birds. 
The gland is a tubular one and is provided with a sinus into 
which the cells pour their secretion. The corium often con- 
tains mucous sacs. 

The feathers develop from a papillary structure of the 
corium. This corresponds to the hair papilla of mammals. 
The feather is divided into a quill, a midrib or shaft, primary 
and secondary barbs. The free end of the quill occupies the 
papilla of the skin and is roundish, rather three-sided in 
shape. It is hollow, with thin dividing septa. It has a cup- 
shaped depression at the free end which surrounds the feather 
papilla and includes a horny mass. The shaft is provided with 
four sides and four edges and is solid. It contains a white 
spongy substance. From the sides of the shaft the primary 
barbs extend out, and in most breeds on either border of these 
primary barbs we find secondary barbs or barbules which 
dovetail into the secondary barbs or barbules of the adjacent 
barb. These form the web of the feather. There are no bar- 
bules in the fluffy portion of the feather nor in feathers of the 
silky breeds. 

The feather coat is changed twice a year, either in late 
summer or fall, and in spring or early summer. A chick 
molts four times before growing its adult feathers. 



42 POULTRY DISEASES 

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE HEN 

The physiological basis of reproduction of the female fowl 
is the left ovary and left oviduct. The right ovary and ovi- 
duct are absent, due to the fact that they degenerate during 
embryonic life. 

The ovary is located in the sublumbar region of the ab- 
dominal cavity and to the right of the median line and touch- 
ing the left adrenal gland and just anterior to and below the 
anterior portion of the kidney. It is located superior to tha 
liver and at the juncture of the abdominal and thoracic cavi- 
ties. It appears as a cluster of spheres or globe-shaped bodies 




Fig. 12. The Pelvic Organs of a Pullet. 
a, ovary; b, oviduct; c, infundibuliform portion or origin of the oviduct; d, 
rectum; e, cloaca into which the oviduct empties; f, adrenal gland; g, kidney; h, 
ureter carrying the secretion of the kidney to the cloaca; i, lung. 

which in the adult hen number from 900 to 3,500. Fig. 12, 
letter a, represents an ovary of an adult "White "Wyandotte 
pullet that has never functionated. The undeveloped ova are 
noted in a grape-like mass. Pig. 13, letter a, represents an 
active ovary from a three-pound White Leghorn bantam hen. 
This hen was developing one egg a day, having laid an egg 
only three hours before being killed : b represents the yolk 
of an ovum which would probably have been fully developed 
in less than twenty-four hours. The ovum is surrounded by 
a thin membrane or capsule very vascular, as shown in Fig. 
13. This capsule is continued back onto the stalk which at- 
taches it to the central fibrous supporting portion of the 
ovary. This portion is attached to the structures of the back. 
When the yolk portion of the ovum is fully developed the cap- 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



43 



sule ruptures and the yolk falls into an expanded portion of 
the oviduct at c, Fig. 13. This portion of the duct is very 
thin and gradually merges into a thicker wall, in which por- 
tion the mucous membrane is thrown into folds. The yolk is 
surrounded by a delicate membrane, the vitelline membrane, 
which holds the mass intact, thus giving it the spherical ap- 
pearance. 

After the stigmen ruptures and the yolk is discharged into 




Fig. 13. Pelvic Organs of a Hen. 
a, the ovary; b, ovum fully developed; c, infundibuliform portion of the oviduct; 
d, stigma or point of rupture of follicle; e, a degenerated ovum; f, portion in 
which shell is formed; g, a portion of the oviduct torn from its ligaments and laid 
over to one side; h, showing the villus-like mucous membrane; i, albuminous 
portion of newly formed egg; j, the yolk of the same; k, rectum; 1, cloaca. 



the egg canal there remains a cup-shaped cavity attached to 
the ovary and which is called the calyx, which gradually dis- 
appears. 

One by one the yolks are developed to full size or to ma- 
turity from the mass of undeveloped ova of the ovary as illus- 
trated in Fig. 12, letter a. Fig. 13, letter b, shows an ovum or 
yolk reaching full development, and d shows a non-vascular 



44 POULTRY DISEASES 

line the stigma where the follicular wall is becoming thin 
preparatory to discharging the yolk into the ovidnct. The 
discharge of the yolk into the oviduct is sometimes spoken of 
as ovulation. 

The yolk has its origin in a minute sphere containing a nu- 
cleus, as illustrated by a, Fig. 14. This nucleus marks the 
point of the development of the embryo chick after fertiliza- 
tion. It is noted to be located in the central portion. When 
the cell begins the development of the yolk there is noted 
first a deposit of fine granules of yolk around the central nu- 
cleus. These granules of yolk material gradually extend to- 
wards the cell wall. This deposit is known as the latebra or 
the flask-shaped mass of white yolk forming thin layers of 
yellow yolk. 

Later, when the ovum has reached a size of about 0.66 milli- 
meter in diameter, the nucleus occupies a position just under 
the vitelline membrane and at the end of the flask-shaped mass, 
as illustrated in a, Fig. 14. 

Later there are formed several layers of yellow yolk depos- 
ited around the central mass of white yolk, apparently brought 
about through the secretion of the peripheral layer of proto- 
plasm. 

The spermatozoa, a, Fig. 18, make their way by aid of their 
terminal flagella or tails through the oviduct and fertilization 
takes place as soon as the yolk has entered the oviduct. Only 
one spermatozoon is utilized in this fertilization process. The 
balance are repelled from the cell. 

After the yolk passes into the oviduct albumen is formed 
around it in the second or upper portion by specialized col- 
umnar epithelial cells. 

The contraction of the muscles of the oviduct forces the 
contents along. "When the albumen formation is completed 
the newly forming egg passes into the isthmus or third portion 
where through the activity of other specialized cells a mem- 
brane is formed around the mass. 

In the lower portion, as illustrated in Fig. 13, letter f, the 
calcium layer or shell is formed to protect the delicate mass 
within from external violence. Here the tint or color is pro 
duced in shells other than white. 

The formation of the albumen around the yolk in the up- 
per portion of the oviduct is probably accomplished in about 
three hours. The membrane surrounding the egg mass is 
formed in the isthmus in about the same length of time. The 
formation of the shell and the expulsion of the egg will be 
accomplished in from twelve to eighteen hours. 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 



45 



The yolk is of less specific gravity than the albumen, hence 
it gradually rises with the blastoderm uppermost ; if allowed to 
remain, the blastoderm may become adherent to the egg mem- 
brane and cause death of the embryo, hence the necessity of 
turning the egg kept for hatching and during the first eight- 
een days of incubation. 

There is just as high a production of eggs from an indi- 





Fig. 14. Section of Ovary of the Hen. 
a, undeveloped ova showing- their nuclei; b, one in which deposit of yolk has 
begun; c, a section through the center showing the germinal vesicle. 



vidual without the service of a male as with such service. 
In other words, the spermatozoa have no influence on the rate 
and number of the development of eggs. 

The egg as laid consists of an outer shell coating giving it a 
gloss or so-called bloom, which may be considered as a pro- 



46 



POULTRY DISEASES 



teetive coat. The shell consists largely of lime salts. An outer 
shell membrane is located just inside the shell and an inner 
membrane dips across at the large end of the egg, forming 
the air cell. This membrane consists of a fibrous structure, 
the fibers of which extend in all directions. The air chamber 
becomes larger as incubation goes on, in order to meet the 
respiratory needs of the embryo or as we may say the fetus, 
the head being almost invariably developed in that end if the 
egg lies on its side. The albumen and a portion of the yolk 
become appropriated for the formation of the embryo chick. 

Immediately surrounding the yolk there is a dense layer of 
albumen and outside of this a less dense layer. 

In the albumen at either pole of the yolk is a long mass of 
dense and partially twisted albumen apparently adherent to 
the vitelline membrane or yolk sac, and to the inner shell 
membrane by the other end. By some this has been regarded 

as a stay, so to 
speak, which to a 
certain extent pre- 
sents violence to the 
delicate structures 
within the central 
part of the egg. 

The albuminous 
portion (egg white) 
consists of 86.2 per 
cent water, 13 per 
cent protein, 0.2 
per cent fat and 0.6 
per cent ash and 
possesses a caloric 
value of 1,608. The 
egg yolk consists of 
16.1 per cent pro- 
tein, 33.3 per cent 
fat, 1.1 per cent 
ash and 49.5 per 
cent water, with a 
caloric value of 265. 
The hen egg corresponds to the ovum of higher animal life 
where after fertilization of the ovum development of the fetus 
takes place normally in the uterus of the mother. The ovum of 
mammals is made up of a male and a female pronucleus as in 
the hen egg and protoplasm and deutoplasm, the deutoplasm 
being nutriment for the embryo till it has developed suffi- 
ciently to draw on the nutriments of the blood from the 




Fig. IS. Diagrammatic Structure of the Egg. 
a, the blastoderm; b, the shell; c, the outer shell 
membrane; d, the inner shell membrane; e, the air 
cell at the large end; f, the albumen; g, the chalaza; 
h, the dark yolk; i, the white yolk; j, the vitelline 
membrane; k, the flask-like white yolk; 1, a fluid 
albuminous layer which immediately surrounds the 
yolk. 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 47 

mother's uterus. In the case of the bird there is no uterus in 
the sense that we speak of it in higher animal life, hence no 
uterine placenta, because there is no fetus developed in the 
bird, but to take its place there is stored up an abundance 
of food, taking the place of the deutoplasm and maternal nu- 
trients of higher animal life. Nature has been elaborate in 
storing up food for the embryo and the baby chick, for the 
yolk is apparently almost wholly intended to be drawn upon 
the first seventy-two hours of the baby chick's life or until it 
is strong enough to follow the mother and till hatching of the 
brood is over. An examination of a newly hatched baby 
chick will show this yolk in the abdominal cavity and much 
still unabsorbed. 

The active or functionating oviduct is a rather large, tortu- 
ous tube varying in size and length, according to the size of 
the hen, and filling a large part of the left half of the abdom- 
inal cavity as illustrated in Fig. 13. In a single comb Rhode 
Island Red pullet weighing six pounds and producing an egg 
a day, the oviduct was found to measure twenty inches in 
length. In a "White Wyandotte pullet weighing five pounds, 
and whose ovary and oviduct had not yet become active, the 
oviduct measured but five inches. See Fig. 12, letter b. 

It can readily be seen that in a very fat hen with the intes- 
tines, liver and other organs and a functionating ovary and 
oviduct, as illustrated in Fig. 13, the abdominal cavity would 
be crowded. When this crowded condition arises there may 
be a partial or complete cessation of the function of the ovary 
and oviduct, hence the hen ceases to lay. 

The oviduct originates at the anterior portion of the ab- 
dominal cavity, Fig. 12, letter c, by an expansion at the ovary 
in such a way as to receive the yolk when it is discharged from 
the yolk sac of the ovary. This portion is anatomically known 
as the funnel, ostium abdominale or infundibulum. The ovi- 
duct may be divided into five portions, as follows: (1) The 
principal albumen secreting portion, (2) a more constricted 
portion, (3) the isthmus, (4) the shell gland portion, some- 
times referred to as the uterus, and (5) the outer passage by 
some known as the vagina. The vaginal or outer portion of 
the oviduct is guarded by a rather well-developed sphincter 
muscle. The oviduct is attached to the surrounding struc- 
tures by dorsal and ventral ligaments. 

The oviduct consists of three main coats, namely : an ex- 
ternal serous, a middle muscular being made up of an outer 
longitudinal and an inner circular layer, and an internal 
mucous coat which is thrown into folds both primary and sec- 



48 POULTRY DISEASES ■ 

ondary and provided with columnar epithelial cells. The ovi- 
duct has great power of dilatation, but tears easily if the trac- 
tion is too much in one direction. A rupture of the oviduct 
sometimes occurs. 

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS 

The generative organs of the male fowl are the testes and 
vas deferens or seminal tubules. 

In the cockerel, before sexual maturity, which is denoted 
in physical appearance by the male bird crowing, the testicles, 
two in number, are very small, measuring only about one-half 
inch long and scarcely one-fourth inch in diameter. They 




Fig. 16. Generative Organs of a Cockerel. 
a, the testicles; b, the rectum cut and turned back; c, the cloaca into which 
the duct terminates; d, the vas deferens; e, the kidneys; f, the adrenal 
gland; g, the lungs. 

resemble, in shape, a navy bean and are yellowish-white in 
color. Fig. 16 illustrates the testes at a, and at d may be 
seen the undeveloped vas deferens or seminal tubules. 

As the male bird becomes sexually active the testicles de- 
velop to enormous size, measuring two inches in length and 
seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, as illustrated in Fig. 17. 
which is from a single comb "White Leghorn cock one year 
old. 

The testis is made up of a globus major and globus minor, or 
epididymis, the latter rather rudimentary. The globus major 
forms the major portion of the testicle. The epididymis is 
short and from it originates the vas deferens as shown in 
Fig. 17, letter d. 

The testicular tissue is made up of fine intertwined sperm 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 49 

canals, united by a web of bands. In chickens the canals are 
broad. They are the secreting tubules in which are formed 
the spermatozoa (see Fig. 16), and a quantity of fluid in which 
the spermatozoa are transported and an internal secretion. 

The left testis is usually larger than the right. They in- 
crease in size during rutting (breeding season). 

The testicles are surrounded by a thin and delicate mem- 
brane, which is very vascular, as is shown in Fig. 17, letter a. 




Fig. 17. Pelvic Cavity of a Cock, Showing the Fully Developed and Active 

Testicles. 

a, the testicles; b, the rectum cut and turned back; c, the cloaca; d, the vas 
deferens; e, the kidneys; f, the lungs. 



The testicles are located just back of the lungs in the region 
of the adrenal gland and below the anterior portion of the 
kidney and in front of the three last ribs. They are attached 
by means of loose connective tissue to the abdominal aorta, 
veins and bodies of the vertebrae. 

The tube carrying the fluid or semen from the testis is 
called the vas deferens and originates in the epididymis, which 
is very short and is located on the upper and inner surface 
of the testicle and extends backward attached by connective 
tissue to the roof of the lumbo-pelvic cavity and to the inner 
side of the kidney. This tube at first small gradually becomes 
larger and is tortuous as it reaches the cloaca. It empties 
its contents at the summit of a small eminence in the cloacal 
mucous membrane. 



50 



POULTRY DISEASES 



That an internal secretion is manufactured in the testicles 
is proved by the physical changes which take place after the 
testicles are removed. The bird loses his vim, energy and 
masculine appearance and ambitions and becomes sluggish, 
lays on fat and is hated by both males and females alike. It 
often shows some femininity in that it will take a brood of 
chicks and mother them. The meat becomes more tender and 
more palatable. In short, there is the same change that is 
noted in other animals that have been castrated. 

THE URINARY SECRETION 

The kidneys are elongated and lobulated, measuring 2.5 
inches long in the fowl of average size and occupying irregular 




Fig. 18. Spermatozoa from a Smear from Fluid of 

the Vas Deferens of a S. C. W. Leghorn Cock. 

a, the spermatozoa; b, the head; c, the tail. 



cavities in the lumbo-pelvic roof. There are three distinct 
lobes, and each lobe is made up of lobules. The uriniferous 
tubules terminate on the surface of the kidney, forming the 
ureter. The ureter extends along the surface of the kidney, 
receiving the contents from the various tubules which empty 
into it. The ureter empties into the cloaca. The kidney tissue 
is very soft and of a reddish-brown color. 

The urinary secretion is very thick and at times pasty or 
creamy in consistency, filling the ureter lumen. The salts are 



ANATOMY OF THE FOWL 51 

abundant. In many cases the material solidifies on exposure to 
the air in less than one minute. The salts dry on the outer 
surface of the droppings and appear as white, chalky material. 
The urinary secretion has been found by investigation car- 
ried on in this laboratory to be acid to litmus in reaction. 



SECTION II 

SANITATION 

Where any considerable number of birds are brought to- 
gether on limited grounds, disease is certain to appear among 
them sooner or later. The greater the number of birds kept 
on any given area, other things being equal, the sooner disease 
will appear, the more rapidly will it spread, and the greater 
will be the loss from it. 

All intelligently directed measures to prevent or delay the 
appearance of disease in a flock, all sane measures to limit its 
spread and encompass its eradication, constitute sanitation. 
Measures, the purpose of which are to cure the sick birds or 
relieve their suffering, come under the head of therapeutics 
or therapy. 

On farms of considerable size, where attention is given 
chiefly to general crops, and but few fowls are kept on a 
practically unlimited range, the loss from disease may be 
small, where indifferent or even bad sanitation prevails; but 
in intensive poultry plants, where the number of birds is large 
for the size of the range, there can be no continued exemption 
from devastating epiornithics, if reasonable sanitation is not 
enforced. Any attempt to operate such a plant in insanitary 
buildings and yards, or under conditions that do not permit 
of sanitation, while it may succeed for a time, will result in 
loss oftener than otherwise, and, in the end, must inevitablv 
fail. 

SITE FOR POULTRY PLANT 

A rolling, or even steep, plot of ground is desirable for the 
location of the poultry houses and runs for the fowls. Good 
drainage is a necessary requirement, and must be provided 
for artificially if the location is such that natural drainage is 
not perfect. 

The surface of the poultry yard must be free from un- 
evenness, so that water will not collect in small pools. 

The poultry runs and buildings should have a free ex- 
posure to sunlight, though some shade must be provided for 
protection during excessively hot summer days. 

The soil should contain a goodly proportion of sand. It is 
very desirable that it be of such a nature that the runs will 
not readily become muddy during wet weather, and such that 



54 POULTRY DISEASES 

they will dry very quickly after rains. The runs should he 
thoroughly grassed over, or if on limited area the double 
yardage system should be used and one yard sowed in rape 
or oats while the other is being used. 

BUILDINGS AND RUNS 

The runs to afford permanent grass must have an area of 
150 square feet to each hen. A smaller area of Bermuda grass 
will do for a hen. Fowls must be provided with green feed 
the year round, and they must have animal protein and ex- 
ercise. Birds should be kept in small units of about fifty birds 
to the unit, and the house should be a portable style, and thus 
the birds in small flocks may be scattered over the farm. It 
is found that fruit trees of all kinds are protected by fowls 
running in the orchards. The fowls devour the insects and 
worms that are harmful to the trees and at the same time 
furnish themselves with the needed animal protein. The same 
is true of smaller fruits as grapes, among which shrubs the 
birds may be kept at all seasons except while the fruit is 
ripening. Fowls may be allowed to run in cotton fields, corn 
fields, and in sugar beet fields — in fact, in any crop except the 
smaller grains like wheat, rye and oats. Fowls rid stubble 
fields such as wheat and oats after the crops have been re- 
moved, of bugs and other insects, and thus make more favor- 
able the growing of another crop the succeeding year. Often 
the youngsters on range can be used for this purpose, housing 
them in portable poultry houses. These houses have under 
them sled runners and are easily, moved from place to place. 
Grasshoppers can be gotten rid of by this means. At the same 
time the fowls are provided with feed and make satisfactory 
growth and thus profit. The slogan, "fence the garden and 
not the fowls, ' ' should be carried out. 

The house should have an open front. This open space 
should be about thirty inches wide and nearly as long as the 
house. In cold winter there should be provided a drop curtain 
made of burlap or ducking to keep out much of the cold, but 
at the same time always insure proper ventilation. The 
house should face the south, so that the sun can gain access 
to the interior at all times. The ground should slope from 
the house so that Avater does not accumulate around the build- 
ing. The floor may be made of dirt, cinders, cement or boards. 
If of cement, there is needed ten inches of cinders or crushed 
rock as a base and two to four inches of concrete on top of this. 
The floor should be at least six inches above the surrounding 
ground. A cement floor constructed in this manner will re- 



SANITATION 55 

main dry on account of the good nnderdrainage. If this un- 
derdrainage is not provided, the floor at certain times will be 
wet and many of the birds will become sick. Colds and roup 
are among the ills such conditions favor. 

The modern poultry house equipment includes a removable 
dropping board built horizontally and about thirty inches 
above the floor. The perch poles are located horizontally and 
about fourteen inches apart, and about ten or twelve inches 
above the dropping boards. At one end is built a coop in 
which to break up the broody hens, and the nests are made 
about fourteen inches square and placed just under the outer 
edge of the dropping boards or at one end and, like the other 
equipment, are movable. By this arrangement the entire floor 
is available for scratch material such as straw, stover or 
leaves, and in this scratch material the grain ration is thrown. 
If ventilation is needed in the back during the hot nights of 
summer it is provided high up so that no drafts will be on the 
birds. In the winter this ventilator is kept closed. The back, 
ends and top are made tight so that there will be no drafts 
upon the birds. 

Sunlight is one of the most powerful of disinfectants, even 
a parasiticide for certain young parasites, and is necessary to 
the health and contentment of the fowls It has the advantage 
also of revealing filth in the building which might otherwise 
escape the eye of the attendant, and remain to breed disease 
in the flock. In cold- climates windows must be provided for 
light, as it would otherwise be dark when the curtain was 
down. 

The scratch material or litter in which the grain is thrown is 
usually cleaned out once every three months, at which time 
the house should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected, using 
a spray pump. Whitewash gives a clean appearance, but most 
practical poultrymen have discontinued its use, for lime 
makes the legs rough and scales flying in the air are said to 
sometimes fly into the eves and cause irritation. In spraying, 
use any standardized coal tar disinfectant dip. Use twelve 
tablespoonfuls to each gallon of water or a four per cent solu- 
tion. The spray mixture can be used much better when the 
lime is left out. Lime in a dry state has no destructive action 
upon lice or mites, as we have shown in this laboratory that 
mites will live in dry lime for more than three days and, in 
fact, till they die of starvation. 

The perch poles should be saturated with kerosene or a four 
per cent solution of some standardized coal tar disinfectant 
dip. This dip is of short lasting qualities, and for that reason 



56 POULTRY DISEASES . 

the kerosene lasts longer, and has given better results in our 
tests. The perch poles should be free from cracks and, if 
possible, should not touch the wall. For that reason many 
swing the perch poles from the ceiling. The dropping boards 
should be cleaned twice a week, or once a day is better. Mites 
multiply in the droppings as well as in the cracks of the 
perch pole and cracks where the pole rests upon its support. 

WATER SUPPLY 

Fowls require water in abundance at all times for the best 
production of eggs (which are sixty per cent water) and flesh 
(which is sixty to eighty per cent water) and to avoid great 
suffering during hot weather. 

The water should be clean, supplied fresh every day, and in 
vessels so arranged that the birds cannot get into them and 
thus contaminate it with the filth from the yards which ad- 
heres to their feet. As is shown under the discussions of the 
various infectious diseases and parasitisms, these are spread 
in most cases, not by direct contagion between the sick and the 
well birds, but, indirectly through the medium of the soil and 
the roosts on which the birds live, the food that they eat, and 
the water that they drink. 

The vessels containing the drinking water should, under 
normal conditions, be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected daily 
in hot weather, and once a week the remainder of the year. 
When disease is present in the flock, the vessels for drinking 
water should be cleaned daily, regardless of the season, and 
this practice should be continued for several days after all 
symptoms of the disease have ceased to appear in the flock. 
Vessels containing water for small chicks should be cleaned 
daily. 

The cleaning is mainly a matter of thorough washing; fhe 
disinfection of drinking vessels can best be accomplished with 
a five per cent solution (in water) of carbolic acid. 

Chickens tolerate certain antiseptics internally very well 
and do not resent the taste of them in drinking water to the 
extent that other animals do, and it is a wise policy to use 
antiseptics in the drinking water whenever an infectious dis- 
ease is present on the premises or when the purity of the 
water is under suspicion. 

The most desirable antiseptic to use in the drinking water 
is potassium permanganate. Place a quantity of the crystals 
in a large bottle or jar and fill with water; of this solution use 
sufficient in the drinking water to give it a slight color which 
will remain for some hours. More water can be added to the 



SANITATION 57 

stock solution from time to time, as needed, care being taken 
to keep an excess of the permanganate crystals always in the 
bottom of the jar. 

Permanganate of potash may be used to advantage in water 
containing a large amount of organic matter. 

Pure carbolic acid may be used in the drinking water with 
good effect during the presence of contagion, or to insure the 
purity of the water. Add a sufficient quantity to make a one- 
half of one per cent solution (five teaspoonfuls to the gallon). 
Do not use the permanganate and the carbolic acid at the 
same time. 

Under many conditions, particularly when enteric diseases 
are present in the flock, mercuric chlorid (corrosive subli- 
mate, bichlorid of mercury, perchlorid of mercury) is a valu- 
able antiseptic for the drinking water. Employ it in solutions 
of 1 to 5,000 to 1 to 10,000 (from three-fourths to one and 
one-half grains to the gallon). 

Both mercuric chlorid and carbolic acid are very poison- 
ous and must be handled with great care. On this account, 
the comparatively harmless potassium permanganate should 
be used, or chinosol, which is equally harmless, may be used 
in a solution of 1 to 2,000. 

DISINFECTION 

The removal of parasites and disease germs or their de- 
struction is termed disinfection. Because of the ability of 
these organisms to multiply, from a single individual or a 
single pair, at an astonishing rate and speedily reinfest the 
premises, it is obvious that to be of any value the disinfect- 
ing must be thoroughly done. 

The first step in any disinfection is the removal of all 
visible filth. A small lump of manure behind a nest box or 
a single grain of dirt in a crack in the floor or on the roosts 
may furnish the hiding place from which will emerge the 
parasites or germs to reinfest the whole building, and spread 
disease anew among the flock, thus undoing the whole of the 
disinfection. 

Disinfection of Buildings 

The first operation in disinfecting a poultry house, there- 
fore, is the thorough removal of all manure, trash and litter. 
If the roosts and nests are removed from the building, they 
must be cleaned and disinfected before they are returned; 
if left in the building during the disinfection, they must be 
as thoroughly cleaned as the remainder of the building, and 



58 POULTRY DISEASES 

the disinfectant used must be applied to them as carefully 
as to other parts of the building. 

The floor and roosts should next be scraped, and they and 
the walls and ceiling carefully and vigorously swept. All 
parts of the interior of the building must then be thoroughly 
scrubbed with water, to which lye has been added, and a 
broom or stiff brush and then flushed out, using plenty of 
water. The building is then, and not till then, ready for 
the use of the disinfectant. 

There are three different classes of agents that may be 
successfully used in disinfection. The disinfectant may be 
applied (1) in gaseous form, (2) as a liquid, or (3) heat 
may be utilized. 

A gas may be used in disinfecting only when the building 
can be closed tightly enough to prevent its ready escape. 
This excludes the great majority of poultry houses; but in 
such as it can be employed, all doors, windows and other 
openings must be tightly closed and sealed for several hours. 
After disinfecting a building with gas the interior should be 
sprayed, as directed under the use of liquid disinfectants. 

Of the gases that may be used, only three need to be con- 
sidered here — hydrocyanic acid, formaldehyd and sulphur 
dioxid. 

Hydrocyanic acid gas is extremely poisonous, a single 
breath of it sometimes sufficing to kill a man. It possesses 
the advantage of requiring but a few minutes to effectively 
disinfect a building and of killing all living organisms in 
it, bacteria, molds, parasites and even roaches and other ver- 
min, and rodents. It will also destroy the eggs of parasites. 
It is extremely dangerous, however, except in professional 
hands and its use must not be attempted by the poultryman. 

Excluding hydrocyanic acid on account of the hazard at- 
tending its use, formaldehyd is the gaseous disinfectant of 
choice. It may be procured in a forty per cent watery solu- 
tion known as formalin, from which the gas may be readily 
generated. 

After hermetically sealing all openings into the building 
except one door, place in an earthen or metal vessel tw T o 
quarts of formalin for each 1,000 cubic feet of space in the 
building, place this vessel in a much larger one and set on 
the floor, then empty into the formalin one-half pound of 
potassium permanganate for each quart of formalin and re- 
treat from the building at once and close the door. 

The temperature of the room, during the disinfection, 
should be above 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and the more it is 



SANITATION 59 

above this temperature, the better. Moisture in the air is an 
aid in this sort of disinfection ; it may be secured by sprin- 
kling the floor just before starting the generation of the gas. 
The building should be kept closed six to twenty-four hours. 
It must be thoroughly aired before the fowls are permitted 
to reenter it. 

Such disinfection may not destroy rats and mice, or the 
larger parasites and their eggs. 

For disinfecting with sulphur fumes, the ordinary com- 
mercial flowers of sulphur should be used. It must be burned 
in the building to generate sulphur dioxid, which is effec- 
tive in disinfection only in the presence of water vapor; 
therefore some means for providing the necessary moisture 
in the building must be provided. This may be accomplished 
by spraying the walls and ceiling until they are dripping, 
just before beginning the disinfecting, or by boiling a large 
vessel of water in the building during the generation of the 
sulphur fumes. 

Fire is required to generate the sulphur fumes and care 
must be taken not to endanger the building with it. A large 
iron vessel partly filled with live coals may be used; set it 
on the floor, or if the floor be of combustible material, on 
several bricks laid on the floor, and pour onto the live coals 
two pounds of sulphur for each 1,000 cubic feet of space 
in the building. Care should be taken to ascertain that the 
sulphur actually begins to burn. 

The building should remain hermetically sealed for from 
twelve to twenty-four hours and then be thoroughly aired 
before the fowls are admitted. 

Compared with hydrocyanic acid and formaidehyd, sul- 
phur dioxid is a feeble disinfectant, but effective work may 
be done with it by a thorough, careful application, and at- 
tention to all details. 

The disinfection of the drinking water and drinking foun- 
tains is discussed fully under "Water Supply." (See page 
56.) 

Disinfectants that can be applied in liquid form are best 
suited for disinfecting the ordinary poultry house. It re- 
quires longer to apply them than it does to prepare for dis- 
infection by gas, and germs and parasites protected in crevices 
and in decayed surfaces of wooden walls cannot be reached, 
as by the gaseous disinfectants. Fowls need not be shut out 
of the building for several hours, as is the case when the gas 
is used. This is often a considerable advantage. Further- 
more, the germs and parasites hidden in the walls and roosts 



60 POULTEY DISEASES 

and buried in the decayed surface of wooden buildings can 
in a great measure be covered up and ^rendered harmless by 
the use of whitewash, which should always be a part of the 
cleaning -up and disinfecting of a poultry house. 

Liquid disinfectants are best applied with the spray pump, 
and all the force possible should be used in throwing the 
spray on the walls. In this way it will reach all parts of an 
uneven surface better than when applied with a brush, and 
much time will be saved in its application. 

Disinfectants will act more vigorously when applied hot, 
and solutions should always be at least warm when they reach 
the surfaces to be disinfected. A copious quantity should be 
used. The solution may cost but a fraction of a cent, or at 
most a few cents a gallon, and it is a poor policy to econo- 
mize by using an insufficient amount. Every part of the 
surface of the interior of the building should be thoroughly 
wet and completely covered with solution when disinfection 
is completed; great care must be observed that no part is 
skipped. 

Mercuric chlorid is one of the most powerful disinfectants, 
but it is intensely poisonous and must be used with caution. 
No puddles of the solution should be left from which the 
birds may drink when they come into the building, and tab- 
lets of this disinfectant must on no account be left where 
children can get them or where their elders may mistake 
them for something else, e. g., a headache remedy. 

For disinfecting buildings the mercuric chlorid should be 
applied in a solution of one to five hundred (one ounce to 
four gallons of water) and four times as much common salt 
(one ounce to the gallon) should be used with it. The solu- 
tion should be applied as hot as can be handled with a spray 
pump. After the surface is dry it is a good precautionary 
measure to apply the disinfectant a second time. 

There are a great number of disinfectants that may be 
used in solution for disinfecting poultry houses, but cer- 
tainly none are superior to the coal tar disinfectants. For- 
malin, for example, is exceedingly irritating to the eyes and 
respiratory passages of the one doing the spraying. Po- 
tassium permanganate needs to be applied in almost saturated 
solution to be effective, and thus becomes expensive. A solu- 
tion of copper sulphate is not fatal to all parasites. Crude 
petroleum leaves the building unsightly and the odor per- 
sists unduly long, and so it is with many others. 

Of the coal tar disinfectants, crude carbolic acid perhaps 
stands at the head on account of its low cost; however, it is 



SANITATION 61 

quite variable in composition. It should be used in five per 
cent solution. Use two pounds of the crude carbolic acid to 
each five gallons of the whitewash. Cresol, another of the 
coal tar products, gives satisfactory results in two per cent 
solution (one pint to six gallons water). Pure carbolic acid 
is rather too expensive for this sort of disinfection ; if used, a 
five per cent solution (one pint to two and one-half gallons 
water) should be employed. Kreso dip (Parke, Davis & Co., 
Detroit), zenoleum (Zenner Disinfectant Co., Detroit), liquor 
cresolus compositus (TJ. S. P.), creolin (Pearson), and many 
other standardized coal tar disinfectant dips, may be used. 

The coal tar disinfectant dips when mixed with water pro- 
duce a soapy emulsion. The alkalinity of the soap is a fac- 
tor that assists in its penetration, although kreso and like 
products penetrate almost any place, yet the soapy emulsion 
helps to bring into activity the cresols and hydrocarbons of 
the products. 

Recently it has been shown that a one per cent creolin 
solution in low grade kerosene used as a spray is a very 
effective parasiticide. Any of the standardized coal tar dis- 
infectant dips may be likewise used. 

While spraying is in progress, remove all eggs from the 
nests, as eggs readily absorb objectionable odors. 

Heat is one of the most reliable disinfectants. It. may be 
utilized in poultry house disinfection in the form of a flame 
from a gasoline blow torch. Every portion of the walls, ceil- 
ing, floor, roosts, nests and boxes must be carefully flamed. 
This method, though tedious, is effective. Used with ordi- 
nary care, it is devoid of danger to the operator or building. 

Disinfection of Yards 

A complete disinfection of poultry yards and runs, that 
is, a destruction of all the disease germs and parasites with 
which the premises may be contaminated by an infected flock, 
is scarcely possible by the ordinary means employed in poul- 
try house disinfection. Fortunately it is seldom necessary. 

When it is remembered that the germs of nearly all dis- 
eases, and the eggs of nearly all internal parasites of poultry, 
are eliminated in the dejecta (feces) of affected birds, the 
danger from contaminated runs will be better appreciated, 
and with the realization that each mature hen produces nearly 
thirty pounds of manure per year, the importance of the yards 
as a factor in the spread of disease is seen to be very great. 

The problem of having clean (non-infected) yards for 
poultry can be solved only by a change of grounds from 
time to time. As mentioned heretofore, the movable poultry 



G2 POULTRY DISEASES 

house offers many sanitary advantages. Plowing or spad- 
ing a yard, thus exposing surface layers of the soil to the 
disinfecting action of the sunshine, and keeping the birds 
off it for a season, offers the most practical means of disin- 
fecting it. Growing crops in yards while idle tend to use 
up the organic matter deposited in the droppings. 

Where the construction of the poultry buildings is such 
as preclude a change of location, the two-yard system can 
in most cases be installed. It offers many advantages : "While 
one yard is being used, the other may be plowed and a crop 
grown. This may be a crop upon which the birds may be 
turned for half an hour each evening to allow them a feed 
of green forage. 

In any system of yards where the area of the ground is 
small for the number of birds, the yard should receive fre- 
quent attention at the hands of the cleaner. If the yard is 
grassed, and the grass is short, it should be swept weekly, 
gathering the manure in piles and carting it away, as street 
cleaners do. A yard that is bare of vegetation can be cleaned 
in the same way, even more easily and effectually. This will 
lengthen the "sanitary life" of a yard to many times its 
duration without such cleaning. 

Immediately surrounding the poultry house there should 
be a strip of gravel on which the birds may be fed, and on 
which they will spend much of their time, to the very great 
saving in contamination of the yard. The feeding ground, 
of course, should be cleaned (usually by sweeping) frequently, 
and it may be thoroughly wet down with a disinfectant in 
case of a serious outbreak of infectious disease. 

DISPOSAL OF SICK AND DEAD BIRDS 

A strict adherence to the rules of sanitation would require 
that the well birds be removed from the buildings and en- 
closures in which sick birds are found, or in which birds have 
died of disease, and that they be not returned until after 
thorough disinfection of the building and grounds. Such a 
procedure is not often practicable, and the poultryman is left 
the alternative of removing the sick or dead birds from the 
flock to prevent as far as possible an extension of the infec- 
tion. 

Whenever an ailing bird is discovered in any flock it should 
be isolated immediately. Do not wait to discover what is the 
matter with it, whether it is an infectious disease or a dis- 
ease at all, or to decide as to its treatment. Remove it from 
the well birds first and decide upon further measures after- 



SANITATION 63 

ward. The same directions apply with equal force to the 
finding of dead birds among the well ones. Remove the car- 
cass immediately, and unless there is conclusive evidence that 
death was not due to disease disinfect the place where it has 
lain. 

Sick birds should be placed by themselves, where they will 
not be molested by other birds or animals. They should be 
given as comfortable quarters as possible and be disturbed 
only for treatment. Unless the poultryman is very positive 
that he knows what ails the sick bird, and what means should 
be taken to prevent others in the flock from acquiring the 
same disease, he will usually find it best to call a veterinarian 
and leave the matter with him; particularly is this true if 
there are a large number of birds on the premises or if the 
flock be one of high value, because of pure breeding. 

Immediately after the removal of a dead bird from the 
flock the poultryman should satisfy himself as to the cause 
of its death. If it is obviously due to accident or if it is due 
to some disease already recognized as present in the flock 
such action should be taken as the conditions seem to war- 
rant, but if there is any doubt as to what has occasioned the 
death a careful autopsy should be held. Since a postmortem 
examination ordinarily means very little to one without at 
least some fundamental training in pathology, the poultry- 
man will ordinarily find it advantageous to take the dead 
bird to his veterinarian for examination. This should be 
done immediately, before the changes incident to decompo- 
sition have masked the lesions which disease may have pro- 
duced, or before parasites that may have caused death have 
changed their location or escaped from the body. 

Mode of Performing Autopsy 

Lay the bird on its back. With a sharp knife open the 
abdominal wall, commencing close to the anus, passing the 
knife forward between the ribs and breastbone to a point 
just back of the "wishbone" (clavicle). In like manner 
open the left side, being careful not to injure any of the 
organs in the cavities. Now grasp the sternum or breast- 
bone, forcing it forward, and it will break so that it will be 
easy to remove it. This will lay the cavities open so that all 
organs can be observed, as illustrated and named in Fig. 2, 
to which refer for further description. 

The final disposal of carcasses of birds, whether dying from 
known or unknown causes, should be carefully attended to. 
The habit of throwing dead birds onto the nearest manure 



64 POULTRY DISEASES 

pile or into an unoccupied field cannot be too severely con- 
demned. 

Among many people there is a belief that if the body of 
a person that has died is not properly buried, the spirit of 
the departed will haunt its living relatives and if they do 
not heed its warnings, bring great disaster to them. If 
poultrymen entertained a similar belief regarding the dis- 
posal of dead birds it would save them much loss from dis- 
ease and parasites among their flocks. The carcass of a 
bird that has died of an infectious disease or of a parasitism 
may be the means of infecting grounds and spreading dis- 
ease among the flock many months later, or portions of it 
may be carried to neighboring farms with disastrous results 
to neighboring flocks. 

The carcasses of birds found dead in a flock should be 
burned whether or not they have died of contagious disease, 
for even if they have died of some cause other than disease 
the chances are that they harbor intestinal parasites which 
are capable of being spread from the carcass to live birds. 
Where time cannot be taken to properly burn the dead birds 
they should be buried and buried deeply, so that they cannot 
be dug up by dogs, skunks or foxes, and so that worms may 
not carry infection from the carcass to the surface of the 
ground. 



SECTION III 

EXTERNAL PARASITES 

More than thirty species of external parasites infest birds: 
their economic importance is very great; fowls heavily in- 
fested with any of them are unprofitable, and many of these 
parasites are so injurious as to kill the infested birds. 

It is necessary to know something of the life history of 
these parasites and their habits to intelligently combat their 
parasitisms. This information is given as briefly as possible 
in the following pages : 

The external parasites affecting birds consist of lice, which 
infest all ages and breeds; scab parasites, producing scaly 
legs; the air sac mite, which is a modified scab parasite and 
infests the air sacs; the chigger (chigger or jigger) or red 
mite, a great pest in the hot summer months ; a distinct bird 
-flea; the chicken bug, which in many respects resembles the 
common bedbug, and the ring worm. In all, seven different 
classes. 

LICE OF BIRDS 

This embraces a group of biting lice ; their bodies are flat 
and their mouth parts are arranged for biting and cutting. 
They live upon feathers, epidermis and secretions of the 
body of their host. As may be noted in Fig. 19, the mouth 
parts are located just back of the antenna? and are not al- 
ways visible. The antenna? consist of five articles or joints 
each. The thorax in some species is long and narrow, in 
others short and globular. They are provided with three 
pairs of legs which are attached to the. thorax. The free 
extremity of the legs is provided with two hooklets or claws 
which enable them to hold on to their host. The body and 
legs may be covered with a greater or less quantity of hair 
or bristles. 

The lice of birds are placed under the following genera: 
Menopon, Goniodes, Goniocotes, Lipeurus, Docophorus and 
Nirmus. 

Menopon biseriatum (the large chicken louse). — This is the larg- 
est louse found upon chickens. It is about one-twelfth of an inch in 
length. It is light in color. Pig. 19 illustrates this louse much 
enlarged; the short mark at the right shows the actual length of 
this louse. This parasite is common on the heads of young chickens. 

Menopon pallidum (the small chicken louse). — This louse is illus- 



66 



POULTRY DISEASES 



trated in Fig. 20 and, as may be seen, is smaller than the M. biseri- 
atum. In some parts of the country this louse is the more common 
of the two and is a source of considerable trouble. It may spread 
from chickens to other animals and birds. 

Goniocotes gigas. — This is the largest species of the genus Goni- 
ocotes, and is recognizable by its large size and full-rounded head. In 
color it is a light yellow with bands and outlines along the outer 
border of the abdomen. The female reaches the length of 4 mm. 
and the male 3 mm. This species has been found rather common in 
North Carolina, but not apparently so in the West and Middle West. 
It is also reported as common in Australia and reported irom Eng- 
land. It infests chickens. 

Goniodes dissimillia. — This is a rather large louse and is appar- 




Fig. 19. Menopon Bi- 
seriatum. 
A, head provided 
with mouth parts for 
biting, feelers (anten- 
nae) and eyes; B, legs 
attached to the thorax; 
C, abdomen. 




Fig. 20. Menopon Pal- 
lidum. 

A, head; B, thorax; 
provided with three 
pairs of legs; C, abdo- 
men with hairs. 



ently rare. The head is subquadrate, the thorax short and narrow 
and the abdomen large and globular. 

Goniocotes hologaster. — The head is nearly quadrate, the thorax 
narrow and the abdomen short and globular. Fig. 21 illustrates this 
species. 

Lipeurus infuscatus. — This is another louse that may infest chick- 
ens. It has been studied in the author's laboratory and has also 
been reported by Osborn as occurring in Iowa. However, it is not 
very common. Fig. 22 illustrates this louse. This louse is long and 
slender. The front part of the head is rounded, the thorax a trifle 
narrower than the head and the abdomen is long and thin. 



LICE OF TURKEYS 

Goniodes stylifer. — This is the common turkey louse. Its head 
is well rounded in front, rather square cut, with scallops behind; 
the thorax is narrow and the abdomen large and globular. Fig. 23 
illustrates this louse. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



67 



Lipeurus polytrapezius. — This is a long, slender louse, with two 
or three bristles extending from each segment of the abdomen. Its 
head is well rounded in front and the thorax is rather broad and 
long. 

LICE OF DUCKS 

Menopon obscurum. — The head is crescent-shaped in front and the 
abdomen has dark, lateral bands. It is dark fawn colored. 

Lipeurus squaliclus. — The head is narrow and somewhat elongated 
in front. There are six hairs on the front part of the head. This 
louse is common in some localities. 






Fig. 21. Goniocotes 
hologaster. 

A, mouth parts; B, an- 
tenna:; c, booklets on free 
extremity of lee;. 



Fig. 22. Lipeurus 

Infuscatus. 
A, mouth parts; B, 
abdomen; drawing; to 
right of head indicates 
actual size. 



Fig. 23. Goniodes 
Stylifer. 
A, mouth parts; B, an- 
tenna; (.feelers); C, less; 
drawing to rightof head 
indicates actual size. 



LICE OF GEESE 

Lipeurus jejunus. — A slender, pale, yellowish-white louse. It is 
probably universally distributed. 

Trinoton continuum. — This is a fairly large louse, covered with 
few hairs. It is common on geese. 



LICE OF PIGEONS 

Lipeurus baculus. — This is the common louse of the pigeon. It is 
long, slender, light-colored and the abdominal segments are pro- 
vided with two or three hairs on each side. Fig. 24 illustrates this 
parasite. 

THE GRAY CANARY LOUSE 

This insect is provided with a slender, elongated body and 
a large head, provided with strong jaws. It lives upon the 
feathers of the bird. It does not suck blood. Its sharp claws 
irritate the skin and cause discomfort to the bird. The eggs 
of the gray louse are cemented to the feathers and are easily 
removed. 



68 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Treatment. — Blow pyrethrum into the feathers. Use only 
the best grade powder. Repeat this treatment every three 
days till the bird is free from parasites. Disinfect the cage 
with a two per cent solution of any standardized coal tar dis- 
infectant dip. 

THE CANARY MITE 

The canary mite is a small spider-like parasite scarcely 
visible to the unaided eye. Normally it is whitish in color 
but when fully engorged with blood is a bright red. It lives 
by sucking blood from its host. These mites are usually not 
found on the birds during the day but make their attacks at 




Fig. 24. Lipeurus 
Baculus. 
A, mouth parts; B, 
antennae; C, legs; 
drawing to right of 
head indicates actual 
size. 




Fig. 25. Eggs or 

N'lT OF THE GONIODES 

Stvlifer (greatly 
magnified). 

A, egg cemented 
to the barbs of the 
feather. 



night. They may be found in clusters in the slits of the 
end of the perch poles, or around the metal supports, or, in 
wooden cages, they may hide in crevices. They multiply very 
rapidly and myriads soon produce a serious condition of the 
bird. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists of the same measures 
as outlined under the gray canary louse. 



LIFE HISTORY OF LICE 

The females of lice are slightly larger than the males. They lay 
oval, white or whitish-yellow eggs (nits), and securely cement them 
to the barbs of the feathers. This is illustrated in Fig. 25. When 
the eggs hatch they break open at the end or a small cap is lifted 
from the end, in much the manner that a chick escapes from the 
egg. The young have much the same shape as the adults and are 
ordinarily considerably lighter in color. The males are usually less 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 69 

numerous than the females. If conditions are favorable the eggs 
hatch in from ten days to three weeks, and the lice live for a 
considerable period, several months under favorable conditions. 
During their development they moult frequently, sometimes as 
often as ten times, becoming slightly darker with each molt. 

Lice breed with great rapidity; it has been computed that 
the unhindered reproduction of a single pair would reach 
the enormous total of 125,000 individuals in the third gen- 
eration, which may mature in eight weeks! 

EFFECTS OF LOUSE INFESTATION 

Chicks hatched in the incubator are free from lice and 
stay so until placed with lousy hens or chicks, or in quarters 
infested by lice. Lice produce much irritation; the effect 
of large numbers upon birds is quite marked. The lousy 
birds scratch, pick at the feathers, show signs of being drowsy, 
may refuse to eat, and, in growing birds, development is re- 
tarded. 

Young chicks infested with lice often sit around, moping, 
with wings hanging down, and in a week or two may die. 
For this reason brooder chicks sometimes thrive better, grow 
faster, and are freer from certain tailmients than chicks 
hatched by the hen. It has been said that lousy birds show 
a greater tendency to wallow in the dust than those not in- 
fested. 

The effect of lice upon older birds is not so severe as upon 
younger ones, but is noted in conditions of flesh and in the 
production of eggs. The irritation is sometimes so severe 
that hens desert their nests. Their combs may become dark 
or black. Birds unable to rest day or night become emaci- 
ated and die. 

To find the lice, part the feathers and the lice will be 
found running over the skin or base of the feathers. A 
favorite location for lice is around the vent, where the tem- 
perature is warm; but they may be found on any part of 
the body and at all seasons of the year, but are most com- 
mon in the hottest months of the year, July and August. 
During these months conditions are more favorable for then- 
propagation. 

DEALING WITH LOUSE INFESTATION 

A time-honored and very effective method of treating young 
chicks for lice is to grease the head and neck, under the 
wings and around the vent. Blue ointment, lard and sul- 
phur, salt and butter, and various other greases are used, 
but none is more effective than lard alone, which, although 



70 POULTRY DISEASES 

tedious to apply, is justified by the excellence of the results 
obtained from its application. Care must be exercised in 
using blue ointment, as there is some danger accompanying 
its excessive use. The same is true to a large extent of the 
other ointments. 

Older chickens may be either dusted with insect powder 
or dipped in a preparation for destroying the parasites as 
we dip larger animals. Pyrethrum is an excellent powder 
for ridding birds of lice; this should be sprinkled in the 
dusting places of the infested chickens. Dusting places 
should always be provided. 

An insect powder gun is needed for dusting the birds. 
This may be secured at almost any drug store. 

If it is the wish to dip the birds, prepare a five per cent 
solution of creolin, or the same strength of either Zenoleum 
or Kreso dip. 

The Maine Agricultural Experiment Station gives the fol- 
lowing directions for freeing birds from lice : 

When the treatment of individual birds for lice becomes 
necessary some kind of powder dusted into the feathers thor- 
oughly seems to be, on the whole, the most effective and ad- 
visable remedy. The powder used must be of such a nature, 
however, that it will be effective. There are so-called "lice 
powders" on the market which are no more effective than 
an equal quantity of any inert powdered substance would be. 
It is not only a waste of money but of time as well to use 
such powders. At the Maine Station no louse powder has 
been found that is so satisfactory as that originally invented 
by Mr. R. C. Lawry, formerly of the poultry department of 
Cornell University. This powder (which can be made at a 
cost of five cents per pound) is described as follows by the 
Maine Station: 

In using any kind of louse powder on poultry, it should always 
be remembered that a single application of it is not sufficient. 
"When there are lice present on a bird there are always unhatched 
eggs of lice (nits) present, too. The proper procedure is to follow 
up a first application of powder with a second at an interval of 
four days to a week. If the birds are badly infested at the be- 
ginning, it may be necessary to make still a third application. 

The louse powder which the station uses is made at a c*.st of 
only a few cents a pound, in the following way: 

Three parts of gasoline and one part of crude carbolic acid, 90-95 
per cent strength, or, if the 90-95 per cent strength crude carbolic 
acid cannot be obtained, take three parts of gasoline and. one part 
of cresol. 

Mix these together and add gradually, with stirring, enough 
plaster of paris to take up all the moisture. As a general rule 
it will take about four quarts of plaster of paris to one quart 
of the liquid. The exact amount, however, must be determined by 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



71 



the condition of the powder in each case. The liquid and dry 
plaster should be thoroughly mixed and stirred so that the liquid 
will be uniformly distributed through the mass of plaster. When 
enough plaster has been added the resulting mixture should be a 
dry, pinkish-brown powder having a fairly strong carbolic odor 
and a rather less pronounced gasoline odor. Do not use more plaster 
in mixing than is necessary to blot up the liquid. 

This powder is to be worked into the feathers of the birds affected 
with vermin. The bulk of the application should be in the fluff 
around the vent and on the lower side of the body and in the fluff 
under the wings. Its efficiency, which is greater than that of any 




Inexpensive, Durable Spray Pump. 



other louse powder known to the writer, can be very easily demon- 
strated by anyone to his own satisfaction. Take a bird that is 
covered with lice and apply the powder in the manner just de- 
scribed. After a lapse of about a minute, shake the bird, loosening 
its feathers with the fingers at the same time, over a clean piece 
of paper. Dead and dying lice will drop on the paper in great num- 
bers. Anyone who will try this experiment will have no further 
doubt of the wonderful efficiency and value of this powder. 

After freeing the flock from lice, care should be exercised 
that a reinfestation is not brought about by the introduction 
of lousy birds. 



72 POULTRY DISEASES 

The infested henhouse should be thoroughly and frequently 
cleaned and the walls sprayed. The spray should contain 
some parasiticide as carbolic acid five per cent, creolin five 
per cent or corrosive sublimate one part in one thousand. 
The roosts should be scrubbed with boiling water and after 
drying in the sun should be saturated with kerosene. The 
litter and straw should be removed from the nests and burned 
and the nest boxes disinfected before refilling them with 
straw. If the henhouse be tightly closed, doors, windows, 
cracks and all openings, and thoroughly fumigated with sul- 
phur fumes and water vapor, it will aid in destroying lice 
or other parasites that may be in the cracks and crevices, and 
difficult to reach with the spray. Fig. 26 illustrates a cheap 
and convenient spray pump for applying the spray. "With 
this some force is used which drives the parasite-destroying 
fluid into the cracks and crevices not possible to reach where 
it is applied with a brush. 

SCABIES 

The acarids, or mites, as they are commonly called, are 
exceedingly common, widely distributed and of great eco- 
nomic importance. They are eight-legged parasites, belong to 
the spider family and are so small as to be nearly or quite 
invisible to the unaided eye, though readily discernible with 
the aid of a hand lens of low magnifying power. 

There are numerous species of mites that infest birds. Some 
live on the feathers and scales of the skin, others bore into 
the skin and still others inhabit deeper portions of the body. 

There is one form of scabies called depluming scabies that 
is very rare, and so far as the author knows has not been 
reported in this country. It affects the body of both chickens 
and pigeons. The one on chickens is the Sarcoptes laevei va- 
riety gallinae and the one on pigeons is the Sarcoptes laevei 
variety columbae. 

The acarids parasitic for birds are placed under the fol- 
lowing genera : sarcoptes, cytodites, trombidium and dermanys- 
sus. Unlike the various genera of lice, the scab parasites 
differ greatly in the effects which they produce, and therefore 
a separate discussion of each one will be given. 

SCALY LEGS— SCABIES OF THE LEGS— FOOT MANGE 

This condition is very common; it constitutes leg scabies, 
and is caused by a parasite called the Sarcoptes mutatis va- 
riety gallinae. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



73 



SARCOPTES MUTANS 

Description. — This parasite is one of the same family of scab 
parasites that infest horses, cattle, hogs, sheep and cats. That 
particular branch of the family affecting chickens is distinguished 
by calling it "variety gallinte"; gallinae being a Latin word mean- 
ing "of the chicken." Owing to the small size of the parasite, it 
is often called a mite. Fig. 27 illustrates the parasite magnified 
100 times; the actual size of the parasite is shown by the small 
dot in the square at the right side of the drawing. In the drawing 
it will be noted that the legs are short and strong and that its 
mouth parts are arranged for biting the skin. They subsist upon 
serum that exudes at the point of attack and forms scales or scabs 
(see Fig. 28). 

Life History. — The female lays her eggs under the scabs, where 
in about ten days they hatch, if conditions are favorable. The 
larvae or young mites are provided with only three pairs of legs and 
are not provided with sexual organs. They pass through several 
molts and are finally developed into the adult stage, and at that 
time are provided with four pairs of legs, with genital organs and 
are sexually mature. 

The tearing off of the scabs favors the escape of the parasites, 
which in warm weather may live in the filth, roosts, nests or other 
parts of the building for at least thirty days, and may in that time 
find their way upon other birds and infest them, causing in turn 
scaly legs on the new host. Thus birds become affected by being 
placed in infested quarters, or by having an infested bird placed in 
the same lot or enclosure as at poultry shows, should any of the 
birds there be infested. 

Symptoms. — This parasite attacks chickens, turkeys and 
cage birds, but the writer has not observed it infesting ducks 
or geese. It always attacks the unfeath- 
ered portion of the legs above the foot, and 
often the upper portion of the toes. The 
minute parasite crawls under the scales of 
the legs and there irritates the tissue by 
attacking it with its strong mouth parts'. 
As a result of this irritation a vesicle or 
small blister appears. The blister is prac- 
tically microscopic in size and later rup- 
tures. This small quantity of serum dries 
and forms a minute scale. These scales 
accumulate until later large, scaly masses 
appear. Fig. 28 is a good illustration of 
this condition. 

The parasites can be found as minute 
white specks in the serum between the 
scab and leg. Both legs are usually af- 
fected at the same time. Itching is pres- 
ent and the birds may pick at the affected parts. Itching is 
more intense at night. The birds may become weak, stop laying 
and even die from the effects of the irritation and loss of rest. 




Fig. 27. Sarcoptes 
M u t a n s, Variety 
Gallinae. 

A, mouth parts; 1>, 
short, stubby legs; C, 
dot indicating actual 
size of parasite. 



74 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Treatment: Eradication. — The scabby patches should be 
soaked with soapy water till, the scabs can be easily removed 
(this will take time, but in valuable birds it will pay ; if of in- 
sufficient value to justify this expenditure of time and labor, 
kill the bird and burn the affected parts, the legs and feet). 
After removal of all scabs possible, scrub thoroughly with 
gasolene or kerosene or kerosene emulsion, using a nail brush 

and taking pains to make 
certain that the liquid reach- 
es the deepest parts. 

Kerosene emulsion is made 
as follows: Kerosene (coal- 
oil) one-half gallon, common 
soap, two ounces, water, one 
quart. Dissolve the soap by 
boiling in the water, add this 
solution, boiling hot, to the 
kerosene and stir with an egg- 
beater, or otherwise violently 
agitate. When ready for use 
take one part of the emulsion 
and add to this nine parts of 
water. 

L i m e -and- Sulphur Dip. — 
This well-known parasiticide 
used warm and scrubbed 
thoroughly under the scales 
is very effective. The lime 
and sulphur dip is made as 
follows : Unslacked lime, one- 
third of a pound, sulphur, 
one pound, water, four gal- 
lons. This mixture should be boiled for two hours and the 
amount lost by evaporation made up by adding water. The 
lime acts as a solvent for the sulphur; the dissolved sulphur 
is a valuable parasiticide. 

Commercial Disinfectants. — Five per cent solution (in wa- 
ter) of creolin, zenoleum, or kreso dip is also effective. These 
solutions should be used warm. 

Premises. — For the eradication of scab parasites from in- 
fested premises, follow the directions given for ridding pre- 
mises of lice. (See page 72.) 

AIR SAC DISEASE 
This is a very serious malady of birds that is fortunately 
rather rare in this country; it is exceedingly difficult to eradi- 




Fig. 28. Scaly Legs (Scabies). 
a, mass of scabs due to dried serum 
that exudes from injured part; b, scale 
of leg forced up and out of place by 
accumulation of dried serum. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



75 



cate once it has become established in a flock. It is due to a 
scab parasite called Cytodites nudus, synonyms for which 
are: Cylohichus sarcoptides, Cnemidocoptes mutans, and air- 
sac mite. 

Cytodites Nudus 

Description. — The body of this parasite is ovoid in shape as 
illustrated in Fig. 29. It is whitish in color and is provided with 
conical-shaped mouth parts, through which it sucks fluids from the 
parts infested. The legs are rather short, conical, and in both 
male and female all are provided with suckers, which aid in moving 
about and in holding on. The legs are composed of five articles 
(segments or joints) each. The larva has three pairs of legs 
and the adult four pairs. 

Life History. — The ovigerous female lays eggs, as a rule, but at 
times has been observed to deposit eggs ready to hatch and even 
young larvae. The larvae pass through changes similar to those 
of the scaly-leg mite by moulting several times, and finally reaching 
the adult or sexually developed stage. 

Symptoms. — The air sac mite inhabits the abdominal air 
sacs, the air spaces of bones, and the air cells (alveoli) of the 
lungs of chickens and pigeons. If 
only a few parasites are present no 
symptoms may be noticeable, but if 
they exist in large numbers their ef- 
fects may be serious. The bird will 
become thin in flesh and even emaci- 
ated, will appear dull, stay apart from 
the others of the flock, and the comb 
will usually be pale in color. The 
wings will droop and there will be 
labored (heavy, difficult) breathing. 
Coughing may occur and a rattling of 
mucus (rales) in the trachea or bronchi 
may often be heard. 

Postmortem Appearances. — By a 
careful examination of the infested 

air sacs or the bronchi and sacules of the lungs, the mites 
may be found appearing as minute white specks, about the 
size of the scaly leg parasites. 

For the specimen from which the accompanying drawing 
(Fig. 29) was made, the author is indebted to Dr. W. B. 
Mack, Reno, Nevada, who obtained it from a flock of birds 
examined in New York. Besides the white specks moving on 
the surfaces of the air sacs, whitish-yellow points, due to the 
irritation caused by the parasite, may be found. The bronchi 
may be congested. In severe cases inflammation or bronchitis, 
and even pneumonia, may exist. 

The air-sac mite has also been reported as infesting the 




Fig. 29. Cytodites Nudus. 
a, rostrum; b, ambulac- 
rum; c, pedicle of ambulac- 
rum. 



76 



POULTRY DISEASES 



liver, kidneys and other abdominal organs, in which cases they 
produce yellowish, pearl-like nodules or tubercles. 

An outbreak of this disease in Colorado was studied by the 
author during the spring of 1912, in which several birds in a flock 
of sixty became ill. They were dull and weak, with a partial loss 
of appetite and a tendency to crane their necks when they tried 
to swallow, became poor in flesh and after one to two or three 
weeks died. The comb, in most instances, turned black shortly 
before death. 

On autopsy there were found myriads of small, yellowish-white 
specks over the abdominal air sacs, lungs and trachea. These 
specks, when examined under the microscope, proved to be the 
air-sac mite (Cytodites nuclns) as illustrated in Fig. 29. 

Treatment. — It is said that sulphur given with the feed 
will be absorbed and eliminated by the lungs in sufficient 
quantities to kill the parasites that infest them, but this is 
doubtful. A tetter method of handling an outbreak of air- 
sac disease among birds of average value is to kill all the 
birds in an infested flock and disinfect the premises. None 
of them should be sold, as they may find their way into other 
flocks and infest them. It is a very serious disease and one 
of which it is difficult to rid the flock. 

CHIGGER (JIGGER) OR RED MITE INFESTATION 

There are two varieties of chiggers found in this country, 
one is the Trombidium Jiolosericeum, the other the Dermanys- 
sus gallince. 

Trombidium Holosericeum 
This parasite is the common chigger (jigger) or red mite of 
the henhouse. 

Description. — It is very small. The body is oval in shape; it is 

provided with four pairs of legs 
in the adult state and three pairs 
in the larval. The distal end of 
each leg is provided with two 
hooklets or claws, with which it 
clings to objects and which en- 
able it to crawl about. Its 
mouth parts are conical in shape, 
as illustrated in the drawing. 
(See Pig. 30.) 

Life History. — Mites lay their 
eggs in the cracks and crevices 
and filth of henhouses. If the 
temperature is warm the eggs 
hatch in a few days into the asex- 
ual, six-legged state. After pass- 
ing through a few molts it ar- 
rives at the eight-legged, sexual 
or adult state. The parasite 
multiplies very fast in the warm- 
er parts of the summer, July and August, when conditions are 
more favorable for its propagation. 




Fig. 30. Trombidium Holosericeum. 
a, mouth parts; b, palpi; c, uterus. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 77 

Symptoms of Trombidium Infestation. — By means of its 
conical mouth parts, referred to above, it wounds the skin 
and sucks blood. The engorged parasite is blue to red in 
color, depending upon the quantity of blood taken into the 
digestive tract. During the summer of 1911 the author ob- 
served one infested flock of chickens in which the affected 
birds showed symptoms similar to birds infested with lice. 
They became unthrifty, ceased laying, sitting hens deserted 
their nests, all exhibited unkempt appearance of the feathers 
and many died. Many were found dead under the roosts of 
mornings. Examination of the nests, roosts and birds revealed 
millions of the parasites. This was in the month of August. 

Treatment: Eradication. — The same treatment as for lice 
will be found very effective. Absolute cleanliness, plenty of 
kerosene or some standardized coal tar disinfectant dip re- 
peatedly applied to the roosts, and especially the under sides, 
cracks where the roost pole rests on its support, and the inside 
of the nests, will prove of value in combating the condition. 

There is common belief that tobacco clippings, sulphur, paris 
green, and a host of liquids, are great destroyers of these formid- 
able foes of the poultry house, but no one so far as we could find 
has actually made tests to prove it. It was thought best to try 
a score of the more common agents used. 

Mode of Tests. — The tests were run either in open tumblers or 
sauce dishes so as to have an abundance of air present and to 
have the tests as nearly under normal conditions as possible. 

Agents Used. — The agents used fall into three classes, namely: 
dry powder, liquid and liquids that give off gases as well as powder 
that gives off gases. Tests were made with sulphur, air slaked 
lime, paris green, naphthalene, gasoline, carbolic acid, insect powder, 
tobacco stems and dust, crude carbolic acid, five per cent carbolic 
acid, one per cent kreso dip, two per cent kreso dip, five per cent 
naphthalene in kerosene and pyrethrum. 

Sulphur. — Flowers of sulphur was placed in the bottom of two 
saucers and several hundred mites, some very vigorous, were placed 
on top of the sulphur. At the end of five hours the mites were 
still walking over the sulphur. Dry powdered sulphur has appar- 
ently no destructive action upon them. 

Air Slaked Lime. — Air slaked lime was placed in the bottom of 
a tumbler. At the end of twenty-four hours the mites had accumu- 
lated in a cluster in the center of the dry lime. Upon being poured 
out onto a paper they were found to still remain vigorous. Dry 
air slaked lime has apparently no injurious effect upon them. 

Paris Green. — Dry paris green (powder) was placed in the bottom 
of a tumbler and several hundred mites placed in the powder and 
stirred. At the end of forty-eight hours the mites had formed in 
a cluster in one edge of the powder. Upon being removed they 
were found to be as vigorous as before being placed in the paris 
green. Dry paris green apparently has no ill effect upon mites. 

Naphthalene (powdered moth balls). — A quantity of pulverized 
moth balls were placed in the bottom of a tumbler and several hun- 
dred vigorous mites placed on the surface. At the end of thirty 



78 POULTRY DISEASES 

minutes motion was not so active and at the end of forty-five 
minutes all motion ceased and upon being removed and placed upon 
paper all were found to be dead. 

Tobacco Bits. — Bits of tobacco leaves, the sweepings from the 
floor of a tobacco factory, were placed in the bottom of a tumbler 
and several hundred very active mites placed in the tobacco. Fre- 
quent observations were made and at the end of seventy-two hours 
the mites were as active as when they were placed in the tumbler. 

Insect Powder. — A powder prepared in this laboratory consists of 
gasoline three parts, crude carbolic acid one part and plaster of 
paris sufficient to make a rather dry mixture. This was passed 
through a sieve onto paper and after one hour placed in tight jars 
till needed. A quantity of this powder was placed in the bottom 
of a tumbler and several hundred active mites placed in the material 
and mixed with it. At the end of one minute all mites were dead. 

Five Per Cent Carbolic Acid Solution m Water. — A quantity of 
a five per cent aqueous solution was poured out into a saucer and 
several hundred mites placed on one side and the dish then tilted 
till the mites were all wet, then the liquid drained from them, the 
mites remaining on the wet surface for observation. In thirty 
seconds the movements were retarded and at the end of sixty sec- 
onds all mites were dead. 

One Per Cent 'Naphthalene in Kerosene. — One per cent powdered 
moth balls dissolved in kerosene was tested. A quantity of this 
fluid was poured in a saucer and several hundred mites placed on 
the opposite side of the saucer, then immersed as in the preceding 
test. In thirty seconds all mites in the test were dead. 

Crude Carbolic Acid. — Pure crude carbolic acid was poured in a 
saucer and several hundred mites placed on one side, were immersed 
as in the preceding test. In twenty seconds all mites in the test 
were dead. 

One Per Cent Kreso Dip. — This liquid was poured in a saucer and 
several hundred mites subjected to a bath as in the preceding tests. 
At the end of four minutes motions slowed and at the end of ten 
minutes all mites in the test were dead. 

Two Per Cent Kreso Dip. — The test was conducted as the preced- 
ing. At the end of two minutes motion was retarded and all mites 
in test were dead at the end of four minutes. 

Ten Per Cent Formaldehyd. — The test was conducted as in the 
preceding. At the end of ten minutes all the mites in the test were 
dead. 

Pyrethrum. — Lice covered with pyrethrum powder were rendered 
inactive in six to ten minutes. 

A powder prepared in this laboratory as follows killed lice in 
thirty seconds: Nicotine % ounce, naphthalene 1 ounce, standard- 
ized coal tar disinfectant dip 4 ounces. Sufficient plaster of paris 
was mixed with it to make a slightly moist mixture and this passed 
through a fly screen and used at once. 

There was also tried the following mixture: Nicotine (aqueous 
solution containing 40 per cent nicotine) solution 40 minims, water 
4 ounces, plaster of paris 1 pint. As soon as these substances 
are mixed together they heat, due to the plaster of paris being 
converted back to gypsum. During this heating process the powder 
must be occasionally stirred. This powder kills lice in 30 seconds 
and has been found still effective after being prepared 7 months. 
The sulphate of nicotine is also effective. 

It was found that though sulphur in solution is an efficient para- 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 



79 



siticide, that although paris green in solution is a violent poison 
hecause of its arsenic content and although tobacco leaves contain 
nicotine which, when extracted is a parasiticide, yet these agents 
in their dry state do not destroy mites. 

Naphthalene or powdered moth balls, on account of its vola- 
tile substances emitted, killed all mites in forty-five minutes. 

Insect powder containing gasoline and crude carbolic acid, on 
account of the volatile substances given off, killed all mites in one 
minute. 

In duplicate tests solutions sufficiently concentrated killed in the 
following length of time: Crude carbolic acid, twenty seconds; 
five per cent carbolic acid, one minute; one per cent naphthalene in 
kerosene, thirty seconds; one per cent kreso dip, ten minutes, and 
two per cent, in four minutes; ten per cent formaldehyd, in ten 
minutes. Formaldehyd is a slow parasiticide and must be in quite 
strong solution. Its gas does not destroy flies. Free nicotine in 
l A per cent kills lice in 30 seconds. 

In order that parasiticides be effective in the destruction of the 
mite they must either be in solution or be capable of giving off 
volatile substances which in themselves are destructive. 

Dermanyssus Gallinae-Dermanyssus Avium 
Description. — By referring to Fig. 31 it will be seen that the 
body of this parasite, commonly known as the mite chigger, differs 
from the Trombidium holosericeum in that it is ovopyriform in 
shape instead of oval. The diameter of the posterior third is 
greater than that of the anterior third. The abdomen and legs 
are provided with rath- 
er short bristles. Its 
mouth parts are conical 
in shape and arranged 
for injuring the skin 
and sucking blood. The 
color varies according to 
the amount of blood con- 
tained within the intes- 
tinal tract, varying from 
yellow to a yellowish- 
red. The free extremity 
of the legs is provided 
with an apparatus which 
enables them to hold on 
or cling to objects and 
to move about rapidly. 

Life History. — The fe- 
male, like the female of 
the preceding genus, lays 
her eggs in the cracks 
and crevices and filth of 
the floors and nests, 
where they hatch out in 

a few days, if the temperature be favorable. The young, six-legged 
asexual larva goes through several moults, finally maturing into 
the adult, sexual, eight-legged parasite. 

Symptoms of Dermanyssus Infestation. — This parasite lives 
in the poultry houses and dove-cotes, hiding in the straw of 
nests, cracks and crevices of the roosts, and other places of 




Fig. 31. Dermanyssus Gallinae. 
, conical-shaped rostrum; b, palpus. 



80 



POULTRY DISEASES 



concealment in the daytime. It is the most common and most 
injurious of mites and is present in every poultry house un- 
less it is kept unusually clean. It comes out at night and 
makes its attack. Few of these parasites are to be found on 
the birds (chickens and pigeons) in the daytime, but at night 
they may be numerous. Birds so harassed at night cannot 
sleep or rest and soon become emaciated. The laying hens 
will leave their nests and even cease laying. Birds may be 
found dead under the roosts in the mornings from the attacks 
of these mites. 

These parasites may also attack horses and other animals 
kept close to the quarters of infested birds ; they cause irrita- 
tion, the animal scratches, rubs, and unable to rest at night, 
becomes thin in flesh, and weak. Some persons are annoyed 
by them. 

Treatment. — The same as has been outlined for lice and 
chiggers. (See page 72.) 

FLEAS AFFECTING BIRDS 

One genus and species of flea parastic upon the chickens 
is known, technically, as the Pulex avium. It is far more 
common in the southern half of the United States than it is 
in states farther north. 

Pulex Avium 

Description. — This is the common chicken flea. It resembles to 
some extent the flea that infests dogs and man, however, a micro- 
scopic study shows it to be a distinct species. Fig. 32 illustrates 

this parasite. It is provided with 
antennse or jointed feelers. In 
the larval state its mouth parts 
are arranged for mastication and 
in the adult for wounding the 
skin and sucking blood. It is flat- 
tened laterally, the thorax being a 
trifle deeper than the head and 
is provided with three pairs of 
legs, of which the posterior pair 
are longer than the others, giv- 
ing the insect great power to 
jump. The free extremity of the 
legs is provided with two hook- 
lets or claws. In color the 
chicken flea is light to dark 
brown. 
Life History. — The female lays about twenty brown oval eggs in 
some dirty, dusty place, such as the floor, cracks, crevices or nests. 
These eggs hatch in a few days (six to twelve) if the temperature 
be warm, and from them come wormlike larvae composed of thirteen 
segments each. The mouth parts are arranged for mastication. 
The larval stage lasts about eleven days; they then pass through 
the pupa stage in a tough brown cocoon. The pupa stage lasts about 




Fig. 32. Pulex Avium. 

A, antennae; B, stylet; C, hooklets 

on free extremity of leg. 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 81 

fourteen days, when the six-legged adult flea emerges from the 
cocoon. 

Chicken Flea Infestation 

Symptoms. — In an outbreak of flea infestation studied by 
the author during the summer of 1911, the presence of the 
fleas in the flock was first noted because of the insects attack- 
ing persons who entered the hen house. Investigation revealed 
the presence of fleas in large numbers. 

It is noteworthy in this outbreak that all the lice and chig- 
gers disappeared from the flock, although the chickens in this 
flock had been troubled by these parasites, more or less, during 
the three years preceding. Although fleas irritate the skin 
and suck blood, no noticeable effect on these birds was noted 
by the owner. Perhaps, because it being summer, the birds 
were largely out doors and under favorable conditions as to 




Fig. 33. Sarcopsylla Gallinacea. 
1, male; 2, female; 3, young. 

health. Symptoms similar to those produced by l'ice have been 
recorded in other cases. 

Treatment : Eradication. — Dipping the hens in any of the 
following solutions, five per cent creolin, five per cent kreso 
dip, or five per cent zenoleum, is effective in ridding the birds 
of fleas and preventing their reinfestation for a short time. 
A dusting powder, used as directed under the discussion of 
lice, may also be employed with success. Do not neglect to 
stop reinfestation by treating the premises the same as di- 
rected for lice. (See page 72.) 

Sarcopsylla Gallinacea — Stick Tight Flea (Jigger) 

This is another variety of hen flea. It has been studied in 
North Carolina. The accompanying photomicrograph, Fig. 33, shows 
a female, a male and a young one. It will be noted by comparing 
it with the Pulex avium that it is much shorter and different in 



82 POULTRY DISEASES 

shape. These fleas are found particularly in the sandy soil. They 
are commonly known as the stick-tight fleas. 

Description. — The female is 0.75 mm. to 1. mm. in length and the 
male a trifle shorter. Its posterior legs are much longer than the 
anterior pair. The posterior angles of the metathoracic scales are 
angled. The eyes and antenna? are located in the posterior part of 
the head. It is brown to brownish-black in color. 

Habitat. — It lives in shady places, under old houses, on earthen 
floors, in filth. It is a veritable pest to old birds and especially to 
young chickens and turkeys. 

Life History. — It lays its eggs in dirty filthy corners or sand or 
while on the bird, under which conditons the eggs roll off on the 
ground, where they hatch out and go through the changes which 
bring them to the adult stage. The eggs are oval in shape and 
white in color, while the eggs of the Pulex avium are brown. 

Conditions Produced. — It does not have a tendency to hop like 
the Pulex avium but implants itself on the heads and necks of 
chickens and especially the young. With its powerful proboscis 
it pierces the skin and sucks the blood and remains in one position, 
burying itself in the upper layers of the skin producing irritation 
and inflammation. When removed we find they may jump like 
species of the pulex. 

Treatment. — Use louse powder or grease the heads and necks of 
the young chicks with lard in which has been mixed a small quantity 
of sulphur or saturate the head and neck with gasoline, being careful 
not to get the gasoline in the eyes. Saturate the infested prem- 
ises, including runs, with kerosene. 

TICK INFESTATION 

The chicken tick is the Argas miniatus. It is common in 
the southern part of the United States. 

Arsas Miniatus 

Description. — The body is flat and thin. It has an overreaching 
dorsal surface that hides the mouth parts. The mouth parts are 
provided with mandibles, which have 
hook-like denticles at the free extremity 
and a hypostome provided with six rows 
of irregularly-arranged, toothlike denti- 
cles. With this apparatus it holds on to 
its host. By the side of this apparatus 
there is, on either side, a palpus, an ar- 
ticulated, fingerlike structure taking the 
place of antennae as found in the insect 
parasites. This tick is a blood sucker. 
The engorged female is nearly one-half 
inch long. Fig. 34 is a drawing of a full- 
grown female, taken from a hen in 
southern Texas. 

Fig. 34. Argas Miniatus. Life History.— The engorged female 

drops from the hen to the ground, and, 
finding a hiding place under some object, 
lays her eggs, which, if the weather be warm, hatch in a few days 
into the six-legged asexual state. Upon gaining access to chickens 
it begins to draw blood and molts, finally reaching the eight-legged, 
sexual state. It is now ready to again reproduce. 




EXTERNAL PARASITES 83 

Symptoms of Infestation. — Large numbers of ticks cause 
trouble similar to that caused by numerous lice. The parasite, 
being a blood-sucker, robs the host of considerable blood and 
causes it irritation. The birds do not thrive, sitting hens 
leave their nests, laying hens cease laying, young birds make 
but little growth. Badly infested birds may die. 

Treatment. — Combat the parasite with sanitary measures, 
as outlined for the prevention of lice. (See page 72.) 

THE BEDBUG OF POULTRY 

The chicken bug or dove cote bug is known as the Acanthia 
inodora. It is often found around unclean roosts and dove 
cotes. It is closely allied to the bedbug, from which it requires 
a microscopic study to differentiate it. 

Acanthia Inodora 

Description. — Fig. 35 illustrates a specimen obtained from an 
infestation in Colorado. It will be noted that it is provided with 
long antennae, which possess long joints or articles. Its head is 
rather narrow and it has prominent eyes. The thorax is crescent- 
shaped on the anterior border and is much wider than the head. 
It it: provided with three pairs of legs. Its abdomen, like the ab- 
domen of the louse, is segmented and is practically destitute of hair. 

Life History. — The acanthia inodora lays its eggs in the filth, 
where they soon hatch, if the weather be warm, and rapidly de- 
velop to the adult state. 

Symptoms of Infestation. — This bug is quite a pest in 
Mexico and some parts of the southern United States. At 
times they are found in great numbers 
swarming over the roosts and nests, 
specking the eggs with their excre- 
ment, attacking the hosts at night and 
sucking their blood. The conditions, as 
a result, are the same as is the case in 
any other form of infestation by ex- 
ternal parasites. 

Treatment. — Similar to the preced- 
ing. The chicken bug is at times a for- 
midable foe, even invading dwellings 
and proving more troublesome than the -vr 

common bedbug (Simex lectularius). Fig. 3 s. Acanthia inodora. 
They begin to appear about the middle 

of April, and at times it is necessary to keep the chickens en- 
tirely out of doors. 

The bugs miay live for many months on the filth about a 
dove cote or henhouse and the disinfection must be most thor- 
ough to eradicate them. 




84 POULTRY DISEASES 

BEE STINGS 

Young ducklings attempting to catch bees where bee gums 
are set on the ground are sometimes attacked and so severely 
stung that many die. Severe swelling, as in other animals, 
results from the stings. 

FUNGI AFFECTING BIRDS 

Three harmful fungi affect chickens. One kind affects the 
mouth, another the skin and the third the lungs. They are 
more or less common in this country. 

Thrush — Aphtha — Sore Mouth 

This is a condition affecting the mouth and is due to a low- 
grade fungus called the Oidium albicans (Saccharomyces albi- 
cans). This consists of hyphas (fine thread-like processes) 
which in some instances show well marked chains of cells. It 
reproduces by forming round or ovoid spores. 

Symptoms. — E berth has reported a case in a bird that was 
emaciated, dull and died in convulsions. On the inner lining 
or mucous membrane of the first portion of the esophagus 
whitish to brownish yellow deposits adhering to the mucous 
surface were observed. These were found to be composed of 
the spores and filaments of this fungus. It has also been 
reported as occurring in turkeys. 

Treatment. — If the patches can be seen it is best to cauter- 
ize the area with stick of lunar caustic (molded nitrate of 
silver). Intestinal antiseptics are also indicated such as are 
given in other intestinal disorders as fowl cholera. (See 
page 110.) 

Tinea Favosa — Honey-Comb Ringworm 

This malady is due to another low-grade fungus, the Acho- 
rion schoenleinii. The fungus somewhat resembles the Oidium 
albicans appearing in hyphas or threads and reproducing by 
spore formation. 

The hyphas are three to five microns thick, forming rami- 
fying branches with tapering ends. The hyphas are matted 
together, forming mycelia or mat-like masses. Spores varying 
from three to six microns in diameter are found in the meshes 
of this mycelia. These spores are egg, ball or biscuit shaped. 

The fungus may be grown on artificial media. Upon arti- 
ficial media it appears as a moss-like growth. It grows best 
at twenty-five degrees Fahrenheit. 

Symptoms. — This disease has been called favus, baldness 
and white comb. It is a disease that is highly contagious and 
attacks the comb, face and neck. If not treated, but allowed 



EXTERNAL PARASITES 85 

to spread and go on uninterrupted, it may later extend to the 
body. 

The disease first appears on the comb or face as whitish or 
light-gray, small, roundish patches, which vary from the size 
of a millet seed to a half-inch in diameter. Later these patches 
may coalesce and form large areas. 

The diseased area is covered with a scale which may be 
depressed in the center and turned up at the edges, giving 
it a cup-like shape. In the course of four to six weeks the 
crusts may be one-fourth inch in thickness. 

The feathers become dry, erect, brittle and break off at the 
surface, leaving large denuded areas. A disagreeable odor 
is given off by the diseased areas which has been likened to 
that of moldy cheese. As the disease progresses the bird loses 
its appetite, becomes gradually emaciated, weakens and finally 
dies. 

Treatment. — In the early stage this disease yields to treat- 
ment readily. The crusts should be soaked with soapy water 
containing a five per cent solution of creolin, liquor cresolis, 
kreso dip, carbolic acid, or similar antiseptic. The fluid should 
find its way to every part affected. The premises should be 
disinfected as for lice or other parasites. 

Pneumomycosis — Aspergillosis 

The third fungus disease affecting birds is usually due to 
the Aspergillus fumigatus, an organism similar to the com- 
mon green molds. It affects the lungs and is discussed under 
"Diseases of the Organs of Respiration." (See page 172.) 

MYCOSIS OF PIGEONS 

This disease is caused by the Aspergillus glaucus. The 
skin is covered with thin yellowish crusts which may be lo- 
cated on any part of the body. The crusts give off an of- 
fensive odor. The birds may finally die of exhaustion. 

WHITE SCALE OF THE COMB, FACE AND WATTLES 

There is a condition among fowls which attacks the comb, 
face and wattles. The disease manifests itself as very thin, 
white scales and in some respects simulates white comb due 
to a fungus but in these cases laboratory examinations have 
failed to reveal any fungus. The comb, face and wattles be- 
come pale. The disease may run pretty well through a flock 
and suddenly disappear spontaneously. 

The best results are attained with a sulphur ointment, five 
parts flowers of sulphur to 95 parts vaselin, applied once a 
day to the affected parts. 



86 POULTRY DISEASES 

BALDNESS OF CANARIES 

Baldness sometimes is caused by mites or lice. A loss of 
feathers about the head may also indicate old age or even 
general debility. At the natural time of molting the growth 
of feathers may be aided by warmth and a well regulated 
diet. In addition to the usual food, twice a w T eek give a little 
bread moistened with milk which has been dusted with a 
mixture of two parts sulphur and one part potassium chlorate. 
At the same intervals rub a little carbolized petrolatum on 
the bald spots. 



SECTION IV 

INTERNAL PARASITES 

Parasites infesting the intestinal canal of fowls are har- 
bored by most fowls, and serious infestations by these para- 
sites are by no means rare. These parasites are commonly 
spoken of as worms. Other internal parasites, such as gape- 
worm and air-sac mite, while not so common as the intestinal 
worms, are by no means unknown, and have the same pos- 
sibilities of serious infestation. 

Intestinal parasites in small numbers infest all fowls with- 
out doing perceptible harm, but there is always the possibility 
that conditions for their propagation may become so favorable 
as to turn the mildest infestation into a devastating para- 
sitism. Indeed, this very thing, has occured numberless times, 
and not a few flocks have been entirely destroyed by it. The 
death of any bird from the effects of internal parasites should 
be looked upon with apprehension. 

Flocks infested with large numbers of round worms are 
unprofitable in the extreme. The birds are unthrifty, appear 
unkempt and suffer from diarrhea and constipation. Young 
fowls are most severely affected. 

Internal parasites may be classed under four orders, as 
follows : Nematodes, or round worms ; Cestodes, or ribbon- 
sbaped segmented worms; Acanthocephala, or thorn-headed 
worms; Trematoda, or flat leaf -like worms, called flukes. 

IMPORTANT ROUND WORMS 

Round worms are the commonest of internal parasites ; they 
may be found in the ceca of nearly all fowls, and usually in 
other portions of the bowel. When numerous they may seri- 
ously interfere with digestion and nutrition, and by their ir- 
ritation of the intestine cause a stubborn diarrhea. Rarely 
they become so plentiful in the intestine as to wholly obstruct 
it. 

The round worms include four important internal parasites 
of birds ; the large, round, intestinal worm ; the small, round 
intestinal worm ; the gizard worm ; and the gapeworm, be- 
sides a number of rare, or for other reasons, unimportant 
worms, all of which will be described in turn. 

Ascaris Inflexa 
This parasite, sometimes called the Heterakis perspicillum, 
is commonly known as the large, round worm. It is very com- 



88 



POULTRY DISEASES 



mon, having been found by the author in twenty-four out of 
eighty-seven autopsies. 

Description. — This intestinal parasite is round in shape and 
whitish-yellow to white in color, varying from one to two inches 
in length. There are two sexes, male and female, the female being 
considerably the larger. Fig. 36 shows the actual size of the 
male and the female specimens from which this drawing was made. 
Some few specimens are much larger than the ones shown. 

Life History. — The adult worms deposit large numbers of eggs 
in the intestines of the infested fowl. These eggs are very minute, 
microscopic in size and can be seen only when examined under a 
high power microscope. They pass out of the intestine of the bird 
with the droppings, are very resistant to dryness and ordinarilly 
do not hatch until taken into the alimentary tract of another fowl. 
There is some evidence that eggs may hatch in the droppings under 




Fig. 36. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. 

Fig. 36. Ascaris Inflexa (Natural Size). 

A, female; B, male. 

Fig. 37. Heterakis Papilloma (Natural Size). 

A, female; B, male. 

Fig. 38. Heterakis Papillosa, Head Extremity (Magnified). 

A, mouth parts; B, esophagus. 



certain conditions. Infestation is brought about by means of food 
or drink, which has been contaminated with egg-laden droppings. 
Thus one affected bird may infest an entire flock. The younger 
worms are found toward the gizzard end of the bowel and the larger 
ones farther down the small intestines. The development from 
newly hatched larva? to full grown males and females is attained in 
from three to four weeks. If infestation has lasted the required 
length of time the droppings of an infested fowl will be seen to 
harbor great numbers of tiny worm eggs. 

Symptoms of Infestation. — These parasites harm the host 
by ingesting food during its digestion by the host, thus rob- 
bing it to a certain extent. A few worms may produce no 
noticeable effect upon the health of the bird, but if present 
in large numbers they cause serious trouble. It has been 
found that the excrementitious (waste) matter given off by 
these and other intestinal worms is poisonous. It is absorbed 
and has a deleterious constitutional effect, similar to that of 



INTERNAL PARASITES 89 

like infestations by parasites in the larger animals and in man. 

At times the worms are found in large masses, partially 
obstructing the bowel, causing constipation, and possibly irri- 
tation sufficient to set up inflammation. There may be a loss 
of appetite, unthrifty condition, unkempt appearance of plum- 
age, dullness, languor and drooping wings, emaciation, loss 
of color from the comb and mucous membranes followed by 
death in a few weeks. 

By careful examination of the contents of the digestive tract 
of the birds killed for food purposes the poultry raiser may 
keep informed as to whether this form of parasitism is present 
in his flock. If these worms are present in members of the 
flock close observation will occasionally discover them passed 
in the feces. 

Treatment. — It is necessary to keep the yard and henhouse 
clean, lime scattered on the floor and about the yard, and 
the water for the birds kept in a clean fountain and the food 
in clean troughs, made for the purpose, and disinfected daily, 
and so constructed that birds cannot step into them. If at 
all possible, birds should be moved upon new ground. The 
parasites' eggs in the droppings removed from the henhouse 
may be destroyed by mixing the manure with unslaked lime. 

The birds may be given one teaspoonful of turpentine fol- 
lowed by a tablespoonful of olive oil. If the crop is full the 
dose of turpentine should be doubled. Five to ten grain doses 
of areca nut is a good treatment. The areca nut can be mixed 
with soft feed and fed from a clean trough; it acts as a ca- 
thartic as well as a parasiticide. One grain doses of thymol 
are an excellent treatment for round worms. Two grains of 
santonin for each bird is likewise an effective treatment. 

Heterakis Papillosa 

This is another very common worm and is usually found 
in the ceca or blind guts. The author has found it present 
in about fifty per cent of the adult birds autopsied in his in- 
vestigation work among poultry during the past ten years. 
It is spoken of as the small round worm by poultrymen. 

Description. — This worm is much smaller than the Ascaris inflexa, 
being only about one-fourth to one-half inch long. It is white in 
color. Fig. 37 illustrates the male and female, natural size. Fig. 38 
illustrates the head parts, magnified several times, and Fig. 39 the 
caudal or posterior end of the male, magnified several diameters. 

Life History. — So far as known the life history is the same as 
that of the Ascaris inflexa. While the latter infests the small in- 
testines as stated above, this one is found principally in the ceca 
or blind guts. 

Symptoms of Infestation. — "When present in large numbers 



90 



POULTRY DISEASES 



the small round intestinal worm of chickens (Heterakis papil- 
losa) produces considerable irritation and results in an un- 
thrifty condition of the affected bird. It robs the host of 
nutrients, as does the Ascaris. 

Treatment. — Sanitary measures for the prevention and erad- 
ication of this parasitism and directions for its treatment are 
the same as for Ascaris inflexa. (See page 89.) 

Powdered areca nut, powdered pomegranate root bark, tur- 
pentine, gasoline, iron sulphate, and tobacco, given both alone 
and in various combinations in the form of pills or mixed 
with food, are effective. 

Tobacco stems when finely chopped, steeped in water for 
two hours, and the stems and liquid mixed with the mash 




Fig. 



39. Heterakis Papillosa, Tail Extremity (Greatly Magnified). 
A, spiculae; B, preanal sucker; C, papilla. 



are readily eaten by the fowls and give uniformly good re- 
sults. The fowls which are very badly infested with round- 
worms are in most instances entirely freed from these para- 
sites after two doses. 

Spiroptera Hamulosa 

This is the gizzard worm of chickens. Specimens have been 
sent to the author's laboratory from Missouri only. 

Description. — The male measures about one-half inch in length 
and the female about three-quarters of an inch. Fig. 40 illustrates 
the worms, natural size. 

Symptoms of Infestation. — The economic significance of this 
parasitism is due chiefly to the loss of weight and the stunted 
growth which it causes. The affected birds become anemic, 
emaciated, extremely lazy and have a ravenous appetite. The 
worms produce nodules in the walls of the gizzard. The birds 
become infested from eating food contaminated or soiled with 
the excrement of infested birds or by taking in young, imma- 
ture worms through soiled food and water. 

Treatment. — The treatment is difficult owing to the fact 




INTERNAL PARASITES 91 

that the worms are imbedded in tumefactions in the walls of 
the gizzard. Give turpentine and olive oil as directed for the 
treatment of Ascaris inflexa infestations. The treatment 
should be repeated three or four times at inter- 
vals of one week. 

Eradication of Worms. — A campaign to con- 
trol the round worms of all kinds infesting the 
intestinal tract involves both treatment of the 
fowls in order to expel the worms, and disinfec- 
tion and sanitation of the coops and runways to Fig. 40 Sfir- 

. L ^ OPTERA HAMU- 

prevent remiestation. losa (natural 

Birds do not like mash in which there is SIZE-) 

incorporated turpentine, or areca nut. To- female. 
bacco stems finely chopped and steeped in 
hot water for two hours and this mixed with mash, gives 
uniformly good results and is readily eaten by the fowls. 
Experiments in this laboratory show that badly infested 
birds expel large numbers of worms and upon post 
mortem examination are entirely freed from the infestation. 
Two doses should be given three days apart. For each fifty 
fowls, one-half pound finely chopped tobacco stems should be 
used. The birds should be fed this mixture in the morning, 
or on an empty crop. In the evening give to each fifty fowls 
five ounces of epsom salts dissolved in water and this water 
mixed with mash. Do not give any other feed for that day. 
For chicks give doses in proportion to the size of the birds. 
This treatment will cost about one cent for each ten birds. 

The treated birds should be moved to yards and houses free 
from infestation. In yards where infested fowls have been 
kept it has been found, upon microscopic examination, that 
the soil may be infested by the eggs of the round intestinal 
worms to a depth of two inches below the surface. For dis- 
infecting the yards a corrosive sublimate solution 1 to 1,000 
may be used. This is applied by aid of a sprinkling can after 
all rubbish has been swept up and removed. One gallon of 
the solution should be used for each ten square feet. 

The houses should be thoroughly cleaned and every square 
inch saturated with the corrosive sublimate solution. The 
litter removed from the yard and house should be hauled out 
and scattered on a field used for raising crops and remote from 
the fowls. 

Mercuric chlorid (corrosive sublimate) is poisonous and care 
must be taken not to allow the birds to drink it or the food 
or water to become contaminated with it. After the feed and 
water troughs have been thoroughly scrubbed inside and out 
with the solution, they must be rinsed with clear water. 




92 POULTRY DISEASES 

Syngamus Trachealis 

This parasite is sometimes called the Sclerostoma syngamus, 
and popularly the forked worm or gapeworm. There is an- 
other worm slightly larger than this one that infests the 
bronchi and trachea of ducks, swans and geese. It is called the 
Syngamus oronchialis. 

Description. — The male is very much smaller than the female, 
upon which it exists as a parasite. Fig. 41 illustrates these worms 
in copulation as they are always found. A, illustrates a section of 
mucous membrane. B, the male, which, it will be noted, is much 
thinner than the female and scarcely one-fourth inch long; and C, 
the female, about one inch in length. The mouth 
parts are surrounded by a capsular arrangement by 
which it holds firmly to the mucous membrane of the 
trachea (windpipe) or bronchi. The mouth parts 
are provided with chitinous teeth, with which they 
wound the mucous membrane; from this wound they 
suck blood. 

Life History. — The female produces eggs which es- 
cape from her body only after she is expelled from 
the host and her body decomposed. The embryos 
thus escaping from the decomposing and disintegrat- 
Fig 41 Sr*r- i n S female are taken up by earth worms. Thus, 
gamus Trache- chicks drinking contaminated water, or eating these 
alis (natural infested earth worms, in turn become infested; or if 
£IZE )- the chick should pick up an expelled female contain- 

mtrX-ane "of ing the ma ture eggs, the embryos would be liberated 
trachea; in the stomach of the chick, in which case they mi- 
B, male; C, grate to the air sacs and air passages and grow to 
female. maturity. 

Ellers has produced the disease by feeding embryos 
fresh from the trachea of infested birds. It would therefore appear 
that an intermediate host is not required, but that a bird may be- 
come infested by picking up an expelled worm or some of the 
tracheal discharge containing the embryos. 

Symptoms of Infestation. — "Wild as well as tame birds are 
susceptible to gapeworm infestation (chickens, turkeys, pheas- 
ants, partridges, pea-fowl, magpies, black storks, starlings, 
crows, parrots, swifts, woodpeckers and martins all have been 
reported as having become infested). 

The poultryman's trouble is usually with young chicks and 
turkeys. The small, immature gapeworms or eggs containing 
the embryos find their way to the intestinal tract of the young 
bird as described above, and from the intestine they migrate 
to the trachea (wind pipe) and its branches and attach them- 
selves, where, by growing in size, they gradually obstruct the 
passage of air to the lungs. As a result, the bird finds breath- 
ing difficult and after a while gasps for breath, extending 
its head high into the air, finally becoming asphyxiated. Usu- 
ally a lump may be found by feeling along the trachea, if 
the worms be lodged in that part of the trachea, which is 



INTERNAL PARASITES 93 

palpable. The sick bird coughs and shakes its head frequently. 
Masses of viscid mucus are expelled from the mouth. The 
birds frequently open their mouths and make a wheezing noise. 
Their appetite remains excellent but emaciation soon develops. 
In later stages the appetite disappears and the feathers are 
ruffled. A definite diagnosis may always be made upon au- 
topsy by the presence or absence of the worms in the trachea, 
where, if present, they will be found in pairs attached to the 
mucous membrane. 

Prevention. — Hatch the eggs in an incubator. Do not allow 
the chicks to run out in wet grass, where they may find earth 
worms or contaminated water. Feed only in containers which 
are constructed for the purpose and kept clean. 

Treatment. — By grasping the bird in the left hand and forc- 
ing its mouth open a doubled horse hair may be run down 
the trachea and by twisting and again withdrawing, the worms 
may usually be dislodged. Gentle pressure over the region of 
the mass may so injure the worms as to cause them to loosen 
their hold and be expelled by the bird during the coughing 
which this causes. Care must be exercised lest the trachea be 
injured. A feather from which all barbs except the tip have 
been removed may be dipped in turpentine, forced down the 
trachea, and when the tip has passed the mass of worms it 
may be twisted as it is withdrawn. This usually results in 
their removal. By referring to Fig. 2, the location of the 
onening of the trachea (34) through the larynx may be seen. 
The Syngamus bronchialis affects the bronchi where it causes 
a catarrhal condition and at times abscess formation. 

UNIMPORTANT ROUND WORMS 

There are other round worms that may infest the intestinal 
tract, but they are not common, or important, to the poultry 
industry. The list follows : 

Heterakis Differens 
This is a slightly larger species than the Heterakis papillosa. 
Its mouth has no apparent lips; the pharyngeal bulb is distinct; 
there are two unequal spiculae. It is found in the posterior portion 
of the intestines of chickens. 

Heterakis Compressa 

This is a round worm of about the size of the Ascaris inflexa. 
The tail ends in a sharp mucro. It is found in the small intestines 
of chickens. 

Trichosomum 

Several species of this genus have been reported from various 
parts of the world, but have not been observed by the author in 
this country. They are shaped something like the old-fashioned 
blacksnake whip. They are blood suckers, and in the adult stage 
live in the small intestine. 



94 POULTEY DISEASES 

Heterakis Maculosa 

A round, white worm found in intestinal vesicles of the pigeon. 
The male is about three-fourths of an inch and the female about 
one inch long. At times this worm is a serious menace to the flock, 
killing many birds. The symptoms are similar to those produced in 
chickens by round worms. 

Dispharagus Nasutus (Filaria Tite), Dispharagus Spiralis and Dis- 
pharagus Laticeps 

These sometimes infest the crop and stomach of the chicken. 
They are slender round worms and sometimes cause catarrh and 
if in very large numbers the bird becomes emaciated and dies. 

Trichosoma Contortum 

This worm infests the crop of ducks and geese. It causes catarrh, 
dilation of the crop and emaciation. The bird appears dull and may 
show epileptiform symptoms. After the crop has been infested for 
about ten days severe symptoms may appear. Obstruction of the 
crop often follows. A positive diagnosis may be made by irrigating 
the crop and washing out the small whip-like worms. Both macro- 
scopic and microscopic examination of the material washed from the 
crop should be made. 

Treatment has been ratber unsatisfactory. Keep the birds away 
from infected water. Give each bird one grain thymol and one 
teaspoonful epsom salts. 

TAPEWORMS 
Flat Segmented Worms 

Tapeworms inhabit the intestinal tracts of all species of 
birds, animals and men. More than thirty different species of 
tapeworms have been recorded in poultry. 

Tapeworms differ from round worms, in that they have no 
complete digestive tract, are flat and segmented and have no 
distinct sex ; that is, the male and the female are combined 
in a single individual (hermaphrodite). The tapeworms all 
live in the intestinal tract, in their adult stage, and absorb, 
through their integument, nutrients, taken in and digested by 
their host ; thus they rob their host of food nutrients. The spe 
cies studied in the author's laboratory are from chickens. The 
worm is divided into a head, neck and body. The head is pro- 
vided with four suckers and in some species a circular row of 
hooklets. The neck in some species is long, in others short, but 
always unsegmented. The body is composed of segments 
These segments grow from the neck. At first they are short 
and narrow, but become longer and wider as the distance 
from the head increases. At varying distances from the head 
the segments become mature, that is, fully developed sexually, 
and ready to propagate. Each segment is really a separate 
animal and is a hermaphrodite, that is, provided with both 
male and female generative organs. Each segment impreg- 



INTERNAL PARASITES 95 

nates itself, after which the eggs are developed. As soon as 
the segment is filled with full developed or mature eggs, the 
segment detaches itself, passes out with the feces and falls to 
the ground. Thus, at times, we may find in the excrement 
of an infested hird the segments, white in color and possess- 
ing the power of movement ; that is, it contracts and expands, 
showing it to be alive. This is especially noticeable if the seg- 
ments be placed in water. Before it is detached each segment 
absorbs its own nutrients through its integument. This nutri- 
ent consists of the food eaten and digested by its host as 
alluded to above. New segments are constantly developed by 
the neck of the tapeworm, growing down, becoming ripe, i. e., 
filled with mature eggs, and detached; if not interfered with, 
this process goes on almost indefinitely. 

Upon disintegration of the segments shed from the worm, 
and passed out with the feces, the eggs become scattered. The 
life history of the worm from this state is not well understood. 
It probably has an intermediate host, by which the eggs are 
taken up, and within which they pass through a cystic stage 
and form larvae, which reach the intestine of the bird, become 
attached and develop to the adult stage. 

The larva consists of a head with its fixation apparatus, 
namely, the suckers and hooklets, if such be present in the 
adult, and a neck. Having attached itself to the mucous 
membrane of the intestines, it now absorbs digested food and 
begins to develop segments, which in a few weeks begin again 
to be shed at intervals, containing fully developed eggs, which 
number several hundred in each segment. Under proper con- 
ditions, each egg is capable of producing a single tapeworm as 
before. 

Tapeworms of Domestic Fowls 

Intermediate host 
Name Host (cysticercoid stage) 

Davain'ea proglottina Fowl Slug (Limax cinereus) 

Davainea tetragona Fowl Snail (Helix) 

Choanota Infundibuliformis Fowl Fly (Musca domestica) 

Dicranotaenia sphenoides Fowl Fly (Musca domestica) 

Echinocotylus rosseteri. Fowl Earth worm (Lumbricales) 

Duck Fresh water crustacean 

(cypriscinereus) 

Dicranotaenia coronula Duck Cypris cinerea 

Drepanidotaenia gracilis Duck Cypris cinerea 

Duck Cypris viriens 

Drepanidotaenia tenuirostris Duck Cyclops agilis 

Davainea echinobothrida Fowl Not known 

Davainea cesticillus Fowl Not known 

Hymenolepis carioca Fowl Not known 

Davainea echinobothrida Turkey.. Not known 




96 POULTRY DISEASES 

Taenia Infundibuliformis — Tapeworm 

This worm is sometimes called the Choanota infundibul- 
iformis and also the Drepanidotcenia infundibuliformis. 

Description. — This worm varies in length from one and one-half 
to three inches. Fig. 42 illustrates a mature worm. Its head is oval, 
the neck short and the segments shorter in length than in width. 
The head is provided with four sucker-discs and a crown of from 
sixteen to twenty hooklets, vnich cannot be seen except by micro- 
scopic examination. The anterior border of the seg- 
ments is a trifle shorter than the posterior border, giv- 
ing the border of the worm a serrated aspect. The 
male and the female genital pores irregularly alter- 
nate. 

Life History. — The eggs passing out of the ground 
are taken up by the intermediate host, which, accord- 
ing to Grassi, is the earth worm. Rovelli claims to 
have found the larval or cystic stage, in the house-fly. 

Symptoms of Infestation. — If a bird be in- 
fested by large numbers of tapeworms it is 

Fig. 42. tae- robbed of much food, as related above, and it 
buli ^o r U m T's becomes unthrifty, shows an unkempt appear- 
(natural size) ance of the feathers and possibly a loss of flesh, 
se g' m h | n d | e^ As a result of the irritation produced by these 
bod y- parasites there is a loss of appetite, derange- 

ment of digestion, catarrhal condition of the 
bowels and loss in egg production. Birds two to three months 
of age may harbor adult tapeworms. This tapeworm often 
causes the death of the infested bird. In the later stages of 
infestation the bird appears dull, emaciated and there is com- 
plete loss of appetite. 

This, one of the most common tapeworms, has been found 
to be transmitted by the house fly (Musca domestica). Young 
birds are more active in catching flies than older ones and 
are often more greatly infested. The degree of harmfulness 
depends upon the number of tapeworms infesting the bird. 
Birds with slight infestations may not show any symptoms. 
They may devour large quantities of feed, appear ravenously 
hungry. The irritation caused by the worms may cause diar- 
rhea and the food be rushed through the intestinal tract be- 
fore digestion and absorption can be properly accomplished. 
Though birds eat ravenously at first, their intestines are prac- 
tically empty. The tapeworms rob the host by absorbing 
digested nutrients. In the earlier stages the bird appears 
restless. Heavily infested growing birds show a lack of proper 
development ; they are usually slender, poor in flesh, the head 
thin and the face, comb and wattles pale. 

Treatment.- — Give one-half tablespoonful of Epsom salt dis- 



INTERNAL PARASITES 



97 



solved in warm water, by the mouth or mix in bran, making 
a wet mash ; follow with two or three teaspoonfuls of turpen- 
tine. A few teaspoonfuls of a decoction of pumpkin seeds 
usually rid the bird of tapeworms. This should be followed 
by a heaping teaspoonful of Epsom salt or a tablespoonf ul of 
olive oil. Powdered areca nut in 3-grain doses given in dough 
ball by the mouth or in wet mash is also effective. Thymol 
in one-grain doses is said to rid the digestive tract of worms. 
Mix one tablespoonful of concentrated lye with four quarts 
of grain, as wheat, oats and corn, and feed to the infested flock. 
It is better to fast the birds for twelve to eighteen hours. Give 
water as soon as the grain has been given as it aids in diluting 
the lye. Repeat the dose in twenty-four and again in forty- 
eight hours. The lye acts to some extent as a purgative. 

Davainea Tetragona 

This is the parasite that causes nodular tamiasis (nodular 

tapeworm disease). It has been observed and reported as 

occurring in some of the eastern states and causing quite a 

loss to poultry raisers. 

Fig. 43 illustrates the nodules as they are found and about 

natural in size. This is from a drawing of the outer (serous) 
surface of an intestine, which 
presents a nodular appearance 
that might be mistaken for tu- 
berculosis. The mucous (in- 
ner) surface of the intestine is 
similarly elevated, and pro- 
truding from the nodule into 
the intestine may be seen a 
portion of some of the worm. 
In later stages these nodules 
may show ulcerations on the 
mucous surface. There may be 
seen in these nodules a green- 
ish-yellow necrotic material. A 
secondary invasion, with pus 
germs, may take place, in 

which case pus will be present. Before the nodules are formed 

these worms may be seen between the villi. 

The occurrence of this tapeworm in the intestine is similar 

to the tapeworm described above (Tcenia infundibuliformis). 
Treatment. — The treatment should be the same as for the 

Tcenia infundibuliformis (which see), or mix with the feed 

one teaspoonful of powdered pomegranate root bark for every 

fifty adult birds. 




Fig. 43. Nodular Tafniasis (tape- 
worm disease). 
A, section of intestine of chicken 
(natural size); B, nodules (natural 
size). 



98 POULTRY DISEASES 

Davainea Echinobothrida 

This tapeworm infests the small intestines of turkeys. It 
has been found in turkeys in North Carolina. Its head is 
slightly larger than the neck, is rounded in front and pro- 
vided with four suckers and a circular rostellum of hooklets. 
These hooklets are arranged in a double row. The hooks 
number about 200 and surround a pit-like cavity. This con- 
stitutes its fixation apparatus by which means it holds on to 
the mucous membrane of the bowel. These worms may reach 
the length of six inches. The mode of spread of the parasite 
and treatment of the birds are the same as in the fowl. 

Other Taeniae 

Two or three other species of tapeworms closely resembling 
these in their gross appearance have been described, but judg- 
ing from the records they do not appear to be common. Tape- 
worms are also found in the intestinal tract of ducks and 
other birds. 

THE THORN-HEADED WORMS 

(Acanthocephala) 

The third class of worms listed belong to the order Acan- 
thocephala, The body is cylindrical, but they are not pro- 
vided with a complete digestive tract, as are the nematodes, 
or round worms. They have transverse markings, and, like 
the tapeAvorms, live by absorbing, through their integument, 
nutrients eaten and digested by their hosts, thus, to a degree, 
robbing them. Furthermore, when present in great numbers, 
these parasites cause digestive derangements and emaciation 
of their hosts. They are provided with a globe-shaped pro- 
boscis, armed, with hooklets, which they embed in the mucous 
lining of the intestines; thus attached by their heads, their 
bodies float in the intestinal contents. 

Echinorynchus Polymorphus 

This is one of the three species of this genus that live in 
the intestines of the duck. It is also found in the goose. 

Description. — The Echinorynchus polymorphus varies in length 
from one-fourth to one inch. The body is orange-red in color. It 
has a neck-like construction, just back of the hooked, globe-shaped 
proboscis. Its proboscis is provided with eight or nine rows of 
hooklets. 

Life History. — This worm reproduces by laying eggs. The inter- 
mediate host is certain fish, as the shrimp and crayfish. Ducks 
become infested by eating fish infested by the larval or cystic form. 
This parasite is probaoly rare in the United States. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 99 

FLUKES 
(Trematodes) 

The remaining group of worms which inhabit the intestinal 
tract of birds belong to the class of Trematoda and are com- 
monly known as flukes. 

The flukes of birds are harbored for the most part in the 
intestinal tract. If we are to judge from reports, these worms 
are exceedingly rare in this country. 

Notocotyle Verrucosum 

Perhaps the most common of the flukes is the Notocotyle 
verrucosum. Its body is white or reddish white and from one- 
twelfth to one-fourth of an inch long, an oblong oval in shape, 
narrow in front and rounded behind. It is found in the in- 
testines, principally the cecum or blind gut of chickens and 
ducks. 

No serious results have been attributed to the flukes of 
poultry, although it is well known that they cause serious 
maladies in other animals. There have been three or four 
other similar worms described which closely resemble this one. 

INTESTINAL WORMS OF CANARIES 

If the bird is infested with worms, these may at times be 
noted in the droppings. Place in the drinking water ten 
drops tincture gentian to each ounce of the liquid. After 
two days give two drops olive oil by the mouth by means of 
a medicine dropper. 



SECTION V 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 

Birds are not subject to the manifold ills of the digestive 
system that prevail in higher animals and man, at least the 
list of digestive ailments which we recognize in birds are 
not so numerous as they are in higher animals. Beginning 
with the anterior portion of the digestive canal, the mouth, 
we find its part in digestion relatively unimportant compared 
to that of the same organ in mammals, and its ailments oor- 
respondingly fewer and less important. 

The food is not masticated in the mouth as in higher ani- 
mals, but is swallowed whole, passing into the crop, where 
it is softened by the action of the fluids secreted by that 
organ and perhaps also by the action of bacteria swallowed 
with it. After maceration in the crop is accomplished, the 
food passes into the proven triculus (stomach), where the proc- 
esses of digestion are carried still futher by the secretions 
(juices) of that organ. The thoroughly soaked and softened 
food is next received into the gizzard and ground (with the 
pebbles— grit — always present in that organ) to a paste by 
the action of its strong muscular walls. 

From the gizzard the food passes into the small intestine, 
where digestion is carried on much as it is in other domestic 
animals, by the action of the secretions of the intestine, liver 
and pancreas. 

Domestication has affected the feeding habits of birds much 
as it has the feeding habits of horses. In the wild state birds, 
like horses, eat most of the time, but they secure their proven- 
der more slowly. Under domestication they are fed nutritious, 
highly concentrated food in a readily accessible form, two or 
three times daily, and are required to exercise but slightly to 
get it. Frequent disturbances of digestion, largely due in one 
way or another to engorgement, is the result. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE BEAK 

This condition is very rare. Cases have been noted in which 
an object, such as a sunflower-seed, has become wedged be- 
tween the rami (branches) of the inferior maxilla (lower por- 
tion of the beak), and serious trouble has resulted from this 
pressure ; for example, paralysis of the tongue, inability to 
eat, starvation and death. 



102 POULTRY DISEASES 

A bird with obstruction of the beak will shake its head and 
scratch at its beak. Upon noticing such symptoms in a fowl 
the caretaker should examine its mouth and remove the 
obstruction. 

"PIP" 

Among poultrymen one often hears of "pip" as a disease 
of fowls, particularly of chickens. It is one of those names 
like "hollow horn" or "loss of cud," in cattle, which signifies 
no specific disease or condition, but merely a symptom of some 
ailment, real or fancied. 

In some of the respiratory diseases, particularly in roup 
and pox, the nostrils may be closed by an exudate and the 
birds compelled to breathe through the mouth, and if. as is 
usually the case, the bird has an abnormally high temperature 
(fever) at the same time there is a tendency for the mouth to 
become very dry and the mucous membrane may crack anil 
bleed. Owing to its dryness, the epithelium of the tongue may 
not exfoliate normally, and, being retained, may form a trans- 
parent "beak or horn" on the end of the tongue. This dryness 
of the mouth and the resultant changes are what is known as 
"pip." This dried end of the tongue should not be picked off 
as often this causes death of the bird. 

This condition may also accompany diseases of the mouth or 
the respiratory passage, in which, on account of the difficulty 
in breathing the bird holds its beak partially open. The sur- 
face of the mucous membrane may become dried and catarrhal 
stomatitis follow. The bird will be noted to hold its mouth 
partly open and at intervals emit a shrill sound, accompanied 
by a jerk of the head. 

Open the mouth and observe the tongue and buccal cavity. 
The tip, borders and frenum of the tongue are found covered 
by a hard, dry coating, which may also extend to the buccal 
iiucous membrane. Forcible removal of this membrane re- 
sults in a bleeding surface which may soon ulcerate as a re- 
sult of infection and death of the bird is likely to follow. 

Treatment. — In such cases the treatment consists in the first 
place of measures directed at the primary cause ; that is, the 
condition which is producing the dryness of the mouth. The 
hardening and drying of the membranes of the mouth may 
be relieved by the application, several times daily, of a mix- 
ture of equal parts of glycerin and water. 

If cracks and ulcers have formed they should be bathed in 
a solution of potassium chlorate and water, twenty grains 
of the former to the ounce of the latter. This is best ac- 
complished by dipping the bird's beak into a vessel, containing 



DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 103 

this solution, five or sis times and repeating every hour or 
two. If pus has formed in the ulcers, they may well be 
cleaned with a few drops of hydrogen peroxid before the 
potassium chlorate solution is used. 

STOMATITIS— SORE MOUTH 

The ulcerative form of sore mouth, due to fungi (molds), 
has been described under external parasites. (See thrush, 
aphtha, page 84.) Quite frequently in cases of avian diph- 
theria or roup we find diphtheric patches in the mouth and 
over the tongue, as illustrated in Fig. 67. This is described 
under respiratory diseases. (See page 177.) 

Simple catarrhal inflammation of the mouth is not com- 
mon. It may be caused by some irritants, or by bacterial 
(germ) invasion of an injured part. 

Treatment. — A saturated solution of boric acid should be 
used for bathing the affected parts. If ulcers are present 
they should first be cleansed with full-strength hydrogen 
peroxid. 

IMPACTION OF THE CROP— CROP BOUND 

Obstruction of the crop is generally due to swallowing 
bodies that cannot pass readily from the crop through the 
second portion of the esophagus to the stomach and gizzard, 
that is, to an obstruction of the second portion of the esopha- 
gus. Hog bristles, small feathers, straw, etc., are usually the 
cause of the obstruction. Of the cases examined in the au- 
thor's laboratory some have been due to each of the agents 
named. Two incubator-hatched and brooder-raised chicks, 
just beginning to feather, were given potato parings, after 
which they died. There was found in each crop a potato 
paring extending from the crop through the second portion 
of the esophagus into the stomach. 

By referring to Pig. 2 these organs and their relations can 
be seen. 

A second cause of impaction of the crop is due to low 
vitality of the bird ; as a result of acute disease, e. g., cholera, 
or from improper nourishment, the thin muscular walls of 
the crop may become paralyzed or so weakened as to be un- 
able to force its contents onward into the proventriculus. 

Symptoms. — The animal becomes dull, occasionally opening 
its beak and fetid gases are sometimes emitted. There is an 
absence of appetite. The crop appears enlarged, the walls 
tense, doughy to the touch and foreign bodies may be 
felt through its walls. Obstruction of the crop rarely dis- 
appears spontaneously and if no relief is given the bird may 



104 POULTRY DISEASES 

die in a few days. Death is usually due to exhaustion and 
starvation. Foreign bodies in the stomach of fowls often 
cause perforation of its wall. Johne reports perforation of 
the wall of the stomach of a goose due to a pointed foreign 
body. 

Treatment. — Surgical interference is the only treatment for 
this condition likely to be effective. Having diagnosed the 
case, it is not difficult to clip away the feathers, clean up the 
surface with mild antiseptics and with a sharp knife open 
the crop and remove the obstruction. The crop and the skin 
should then be sutured, and the bird allowed only soft food 
for a week. 

"Where the obstruction is due to a weakened condition of 
the walls of the proventriculus, its contents may sometimes 
be forced back through the gullet and out of the mouth by 
careful manipulation with the hands. 

IMPACTION OF THE INTESTINES 

This condition is rare in fowls on range. It may be due 
to masses of intestinal worms such as round worms (Ascaris 
inflexa) or tapeworms or it may be due to pebbles, pieces 
of rags or feathers. 

Canaries and other cage birds at times suffer from impac- 
tion caused by sluggish peristalsis due to the sedentary life and 
heavy, indigestible feeds. Impaction of the cecum due to im- 
proper feeding may occur. The matting together of the vent 
feathers may prevent defecation. This is very common in 
baby chicks affected by diarrhea. 

Symptoms. — The birds drop dry feces in small amounts at 
long intervals and accompanied with considerable straining. 
There may be depression of the bird, listlessness, loss of ap- 
petite. Death may occur from necrosis of the wall at point 
of obstruction and from exhaustion. 

Treatment. — Give a cathartic of castor oil or Epsom salts. 
Give one-half tablespoonful Epsom salts to an adult fowl and 
in proportion to small birds. 

TYMPANY OF THE CROP (GASEOUS CROP) 

This is due to a gas-forming germ, which sets up putrefac- 
tion of the contents of the crop. It is usually accompanied 
by an inflammation (catarrh) of the crop which interferes 
with its normal function. Birds have been noted to have at 
times enormously distended crops, which, upon examination, 
proved to be filled with gas. Usually these crops contain very 
little feed. This condition often affects chicks as well as older 
birds. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 105 

Treatment. — Give intestinal antiseptics, sucli as one part 
of carbolic acid to two hundred parts of water, or mercuric 
chlorid (corrosive sublimate), one part to ten thousand parts 
of water, or sulphocarbolates compound. 

Immediate temporary relief may be given by liberating 
the gas through an aspirating needle or a small cannula. The 
crop may then be irrigated, through the cannula, with a mild 
antiseptic solution. Follow with two teaspoonfuls of castor 
oil and feed sparingly on easily digested food. 

ENLARGED CROP 
Pendulous Crop 

The crop may sometimes become very much enlarged, slack 
and pendulous. This condition is mainly due to injudicious 
feeding. 

Pendulant crop causes little inconvenience to the bird and 
is incurable except by resection of a portion of its walls. 
This operation is simple and easily performed. 

GANGRENE OF THE CROP 

This condition has been observed several times by the author. 
It resulted fatally to the birds affected in all the cases studied. 
Upon opening the crop a very offensive odor is noted, the 
mucous lining will be found in a necrotic state (sloughing) 
and appear as a dark, sometimes a greenish, caseous mass. 

Treatment. — In the earlier stages there may be given, in the 
feed or water, salol, subnitrate of bismuth or sulphocarbolates 
compound. If the condition becomes prevalent in a flock, the 
runs, yards and henhouses should be thoroughly disinfected 
or the birds completely changed to new grounds, and in any 
case given clean food and drink. The sick should be separ- 
ated from the well birds and the dead should be burned. 

CATARRH OF THE CROP (INGLUVITIS) 

Irregular feeding, a distended crop and irritating and in- 
digestible feed, such as feathers, putrid meat and irritant 
chemicals, may be mentioned as causes of this condition which 
is essentially a more or less chronic inflammation of the mu- 
cous membrane, lining the crop. If the crop be over-distended 
the strain on the muscles may be so great that paralysis re- 
sults. In these cases there is noted a crop filled with a pulpy, 
soft, more or less gaseous mass. 

It may be noted after the ingestion of pointed objects. 
Too early removal of the squabs from the parent birds (pig- 
eons) has been known to cause ingluvitis because of the fact 



106 POULTRY DISEASES 

that the glands which were active during the feeding of the 
young suddenly ceased being used and became inflamed. 

Symptoms. — There is a loss of appetite. The bird appears 
dull, stretches its neck repeatedly and swallowing becomes 
difficult. The crop is tender to pressure, soft to the touch 
and at times, gaseous. Pressure on the crop may cause fetid 
gases to escape from the mouth. Repeated attacks cause the 
development of pendulous crop. 

Treatment. — If the crop be distended with a dough-like 
mass, grasp the bird by the legs, holding the head downward, 
gently press out the mass ; then by introducing water through 
the mouth and forcing it out as before, the crop, in this way, 
may be washed out. 

Give bland substances, such as gruel and mild antiseptics, 
such as salol, subnitrate of bismuth or sulphocarbolates com- 
pound. 

DEPRAVED APPETITE (PICA) 

This may be due to a disease of the digestive organs or it 
may be a vice learned from others. Hens learn to eat eggs 
by finding them broken or by seeing an egg-eating hen and 
copying as a cribbing horse acquires the habit from his mate, 
or as one hog may learn to eat chickens from seeing another 
eating one. 

Feather eating (plucking) is another habit that may be 
acquired from mimicry. Obstruction of the gizzard, lack of 
grit, insufficient or unsuitable food and catarrh of the crop 
are factors of greater or less importance in causing a depraved 
appetite. Kill the bird; the habit cannot be broken. 

CHICKEN CHOLERA— FOWL CHOLERA 

Fowl cholera is caused by a germ {Bacillus avisepticus) , 
and is a blood-poisoning (septicemia). The germ is rather 
short, plump, and stains at the poles or ends deeper than the 
middle, with aqueous fuchsin, hence it is called a polar-stain- 
ing bacillus. Fig. 44 shows the germ, magnified 1,000 times. 
This drawing was made from a blood smear from an outbreak 
among turkeys and chickens, which was one of several out- 
breaks that have been studied in the author's laboratory. The 
large objects are various kinds of blood cells. One of these, 
a white-blood cell (phagocyte), has taken up one of the germs. 

Mode of Spread. — Birds often contract this disease from 
others at shows, and when taken back home infect the re- 
mainder of the flock and the premises, or a bird recently pur- 
chased from an infected flock, or eggs from an infected flock, 
or chicks recently hatched in infected surroundings, or in- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 107 



fected droppings carried on the feet of men and animals, 
from henhouses where the disease exists, or carried by streams 
or irrigation ditch water, dried and carried by the wind as 
dust, or carried by wild birds, may be the means of introduc- 
ing this disease among healthy birds. Even insects have been 
known to carry the contagion. Buzzards are common carriers 
of this disease. 

The germ of fowl cholera retains its power to produce dis- 
ease for weeks, and even months, about premises where it has 
occurred, unless they be thoroughly disinfected. The germs 
have been kept in test tubes, experimentally, for two years 
and still proved to be virulent, that is, still capable of pro- 
ducing disease. It resists, for a long time, both drying and 
zero weather. 

Cholera may affect chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, pigeons 
and many wild birds. The period of incubation (the time 
elapsing from the entrance of 
the germs into the body of the 
bird until the appearance of 
the first symptoms of the dis- 
ease) is given as from twelve 
to forty-eight hours. 

In our experimental work, 
in which the virus (germ) was 
introduced into the peritoneal 
cavity, this period was six to 
twelve hours ; when the virus 
was given by the mouth it re- 
quired twenty-four to thirty-six 
hours to produce the disease. 
The birds died twelve to seven- 
ty-two hours later. 

Symptoms. — The onset of this disease may be so sudden 
that its signs pass unobserved, and finding the dead birds in 
the nests or under the roosts may be the first notice that the 
owner has of the existence of disease in his flock ; or the birds 
may have fowl cholera in a more chronic form and live for 
six to seven days. 

In the protracted cases there is noted loss of appetite, great 
prostration, staring feathers; the bird mopes or sits around 
with tail and head down, giving the so-called "ball" appear- 
ance, the comb is dark, the gait swaying, and there is trem- 
bling, convulsions, thirst, and severe diarrhea, with passages 
of a greenish-yellow color. There is high fever and the bird 
rapidly becomes emaciated. 

The percentage of loss in the flock, if not treated, is very 




Fig. 44. 



from Case 



Blood Smear 
of Cholera. 

Showing red blood cells, throm- 
bocytes, mononuclear neutrophils and 
many of the polar staining- germs 
(Bacillus avisepticus) of the disease. 



108 POULTRY DISEASES 

great. The disease spreads rapidly through a flock. Pure- 
bred birds are more susceptible than scrubs. In an outbreak 
of cholera among ducks, studied in the author's laboratory, 
the disease progressed very sloAvly. Only one to five or six 
ducks died in the course of a week in the flock of 500. 

Postmortem Findings. — Upon opening the abdominal cavity 
one will first note that the liver is greatly enlarged, very dark 
in color and tears easily (inflammation, congestion and cloudy 
swelling) ; we have found livers that weighed as much as 120 
grams, or three times the normal weight. The intestines are 
congested and contain a frothy material, dark in color. There 
is an occasional hemorrhage in the lining {mucosa) of the 
intestines. The spleen may be enlarged and its contents soft. 
Small hemorrhages (petechiae) may be found in the heart, its 
coverings and other parts. The kidneys are dark, enlarged 
and soft (active and passive congestion and cloudy swelling). 
The blood does not coagulate readily and is found, upon micro- 
scopic examination, to be teeming with the germs causing the 
disease (Bacillus avisepticus). 

There is acute hemorragic inflammation in the intestines 
and lungs in association with small hemorrhages on the 
serous membranes and sometimes a fibrinous exudate of the 
pericardium and other serous membranes. Some of the blood 
vessels covering the intestines are injected and the intestinal 
contents, always in a fluid condition, may be mixed with blood. 
The mucous lining of the intestines is reddened, particularly 
in the first portion. 

The lungs may be congested and edematous and at times 
contain areas of croupous hemorrhagic pneumonia. There 
may be a fibrinous pleuritis. There is a catarrhal inflamma- 
tion of the upper air passages. 

Case Report on Fowl Cholera 

A dead duck was sent to the laboratory from the outbreak 
referred to above. The anatomical lesions found in the carcass were 
as follows: Hemorrhagic areas in heart and epicardium; inflamma- 
tion and congestion of the ceca, and congestion of the other por- 
tions of the intestines; the liver enlarged, weighing eighty grams, 
and very dark in color. 

Two glycerin agar slants were inoculated from the heart blood 
and from the liver. Stained smears from the heart blood showed 
the typical polar-staining Bacillus avisepticus. Pure cultures were 
obtained from the inoculated tubes. A pullet weighing two pounds 
was given an intraperitoneal injection of the twenty-four-hour agar- 
slant growth. Twenty-four hours later she appeared sick, showing 
ruffled feathers, loss of appetite, dullness, head and tail down and 
temperature 108.2 degrees Farenheit. 

An examination of the blood revealed the following: Hemoglobin, 
90 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,520,000; leukocytes, 6,000 (hypoleuko- 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 109 

cytosis), thrombocytes, 184,000. The differential count showed: 
eosinophils, 37 per cent; neutrophils, 2 per cent; lymphocytes, 
small, 52 per cent, large 5 per cent; mononuclear lymphocytes, 4 
per cent; mast cells, none. 

This bird died at the end of sixty hours. At the autopsy there 
was noted a fibrinous peritonitis; some petechiae on mucous mem- 
branes; the liver enlarged, dark and weighing seventy-two grams 
(thirty-five grams is the normal weight tor a bird of the size of 
this one). From the blood the germ was isolated in pure culture as 
before. 

[Ward found in experimental cases of fowl cholera there was 
a destruction of red blood cells and in some an increase of white 
blood cells — leukocytes.] 

In describing this outbreak among ducks the owner wrote in 
part, as follows: 

"Regarding the success I have had in the treatment of cholera 
among the ducks with the sulphocarbolates of sodium, calcium, zinc 
and copper, I will, as best I can, give you an idea as to the results 
and the conditions under which we had to work. 

"To begin with we had a large number (about 500) to handle and 
had to send away for the tablets, which delayed us in beginning 
the treatment of the disease, and, of course, conditions were pretty 
bad when we did get started. 

"Next we ran into a long stretch of cold weather, the feed froze 
up nearly as soon as we put it out in the troughs if it was moistened 
and the drug mixed with it, same thing happened with the water, 
so we were sure that the ducks were not getting enough of the 
sulphocarbolates. However, the death rate dropped down about 
one-fourth in two weeks. As soon as the weather warmed up several 
snows fell at intervals of about a week, so that the pens were wet 
and it was hard to disinfect them and difficult to keep the ducks 
from drinking the water that stood about in the pens. In this 
way they avoided getting the drug that was dissolved in the water 
in their drinking fountains. We finally got around that by sprink- 
ling the yards heavily with some coal-tar dip, so that the ducks 
would not drink this water, but would go to the fountains. This 
was made rather expensive for the water from the outside would 
run into the pens and soon dilute the dip already out so that the 
ducks would soon be drinking this water again. This meant more 
dip, and the cost of the dip was soon an important item. A con- 
siderable quantity of the sulphocarbolates used under these condi- 
tions was wasted, for when the feed or water would freeze we had 
to chop it out of the troughs and thus lose some. The cost of what 
we used amounted to seven cents per duck. 

"If we let up using the drug the ducks would begin dying again, 
but I do not think it had a fair trial during the first part of the 
treatment. As soon as the weather got better the death-rate was 
lowered, and now I believe we have the disease under control. 
Under favorable conditions I believe this means of controlling 
cholera would work very nicely. That it will render a flock im- 
mune for any length of time I rather doubt. I gave my chickens 
a three weeks' round of the treatment and for a month now they 
have been all right, but this morning I noticed a few of them acting 
as if they were in the cholera business again. 

Treatment: Eradication. — The germs are found in the dis- 
charge from the bowel and are carried on the feet into feed 
and water troughs, or are picked up from the ground with the 



110 POULTRY DISEASES 

feedstuff. Birds should be fed out of troughs frequently dis- 
infected with a five per cent solution of carbolic acid, and 
the water they drink should be similarly guarded. Sick birds 
should be immediately removed from the flock and the dead 
ones cremated. The henhouse and nests should be cleaned 
thoroughly each day and sprayed with whitewash to which 
sufficient crude carbolic acid has been added to make it five 
per cent of the whole, or creso, zenoleum or creolin should be 
used, of the same strength. 

A type of spray pump convenient for applying this spray 
is shown in Fig. 26. The henhouse may also be disinfected 
with formaldehyd, as follows: Close tightly all doors, win- 
dows, cracks and other openings, and for each 1,000 square 
feet of space in the building, use twenty ounces formalin 
(torty per cent formaldehyd) and sixteen ounces perman- 
ganate of potash. Place these two materials in a vessel and 
place in the middle of the room and leave for several hours. 
The yard should be cleaned every day. If the yard be small 
it may be disinfected by covering it with straw and burning 
the straw. 

For the birds intestinal antiseptics are indicated; the sul- 
phocarbolates compound in one-half grain doses twice daily 
has given us the best results. Other intestinal antiseptics are 
hydrochloric acid, one teaspoonful to each quart of water, one 
per cent of copperas and potassium permanganate. 

The following is an account of three of the tests which the author 
made of the 30-grain sulphocarbolates compound tablets. 

"One flock consisted of sixty birds. Several were sick at the time 
treatment was commenced, and four had died. The discharge from 
the bowels was of a greenish-yellow color, somewhat simulating 
fowl cholera. One tablet was dissolved in a pint of water, and this 
fluid mixed with bran and corn chop. The mixture was then fed 
in clean troughs. In this way each bird got approximately one- 
half grain. This was repeated night and morning. No additional 
birds became sick; only two of the sick died; and the rest recovered. 

"Another flock consisted of 175 baby chicks. As soon as these 
birds were taken from the incubator they were fed the unhatched 
eggs that had been cooked and chopped. This mixture was reported 
to possess an offensive odor. The birds began dying, with symptoms 
of diarrhea, white pasty vent; weakness, dullness, drooping wings, 
etc.; one-half the flock died before treatment was commenced. 
One-half tablet was dissolved in warm water and the bread satu- 
rated with it. The birds immediately quit dying. 

"Still another flock consisted of 200 birds, including a few tur- 
keys. Cholera had appeared on the premises the fall before. The 
outbreak was studied in the field and in the laboratory. The 
cholera germ (Bacillus avisepticus) was isolated. In the last out- 
break fourteen birds had died and several were sick. Treatment 
similar to that described above was used. Water containing the 
sulphocarbolates was kept constantly before them. No more birds 
were taken sick and no more died after the sixth day." 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 111 

Vaccination with a vaccine made from the germs producing 
the disease, has given excellent results. 

Scholbe states a serum has been prepared, but that it ren- 
ders immunity only for about two weeks. 

Kitt has shown that the blood of chickens immunized against 
chicken cholera has immunizing effects upon healthy chickens. 
He has also shown that the white and yolk of eggs of immune 
chickens possess similar effects. 

He has tried immune serum from horses immunized against 
the Bacillus avisepticus but did not have uniform results in 
producing passive immunity with the immunized horse serum. 

ENTEROHEPATITIS (BLACKHEAD) 

This is essentially a disease of turkeys, among the young 
of which it is quickly fatal. It has practically annihilated the 
turkey-raising industry in sections where it was formerly 
profitable and carried on extensively. Although the turkey 
is more susceptible to blackhead than any other bird, serious 
losses among chickens sometimes occur. 

Cause. — This disease is claimed by Dr. Theo. Smith, for- 
merly of the Bureau of Animal Industry, to be due to a pro- 
tozoon (Ameba meleagridis) , microscopic in size, which is 
found in the diseased areas in the ceca (blind pouches) and 
liver of affected birds, which are chiefly turkeys and rarely 
chickens. Others attribute the disease to a coccidium. The 
protozoon is purely a connective tissue parasite and does not 
enter epithelial cells at any time, as a coccidium. , 

Mode of Spread. — As will be seen later, the protozoon es- 
capes from ulcers in the ceca and passes out with the feces. 
Food or water contaminated with the excrements carry the 
disease germ to other birds. Chronic cases (carriers) in older 
turkeys or chickens may keep the premises infected for a long 
time. These germs entering the liver and the mucous mem- 
brane lining the ceca, cause inflammation and degeneration. 
Usually the ceca become infected first and later the liver is 
invaded and inflammation of its structure ensues. 

Postmortem Findings. — Upon first opening the abdominal cavity 
one's attention is attracted by the enlarged liver with areas of dead 
tissue (caseation necrosis). Fig. 45 shows a liver about three- 
fourths natural size, weighing nearly one pound. 

The ceca (blind pouches; see Pig. 2, No. 12), one or both, are 
noted to be enlarged; the enlargement is usually a short distance 
from the point. Upon opening the ceca, ulcers and areas of dead 
tissue (caseation necrosis) are observed in the mucous lining. There 
will also be noted a straw-colored fluid (edema, dropsy) in the 
loose tissue about the heart. 

Fig. 46. taken from an area in the edge of the necrotic portion 
marked B, in Fig. 45, illustrates the condition. A illustrates the 



112 



POULTRY DISEASES 



liver cells as they are first affected (cloudy swelling) ; B, the cells 
farther along in the disease process, in which it may he noted that 
the nucleus has disappeared and the cell is disintegrating (necro- 
sis) ; C, the congested vessels (passive congestion) ; D, white blood 

'cells (eosinophiles) referred 
to above. There may also be 
noted in these areas giant 
cells. 

Fig. 47, b, illustrates a giant 
cell; a, protozoa causing the 
disease. A like microscopic 
examination of sections from 
the kidneys indicates that 
poisonous products have been 
taken up by the blood, for in 
these sections we find degen- 
erative changes (congestion, 
cloudy swelling and focal ne- 
crosis). 

Fig. 48 shows a microscopic 
field from a blood smear from 
a turkey affected by entero- 
hepatitis. It will be noted 
that there is an intense eosino- 
philia. Fig. 49 shows a field 
from a portion of the kidney, 
in a state of cloudy swelling 
and focal necrosis — evidence 
of absorbed poisonous sub- 
stance. Fig. 50 shows one of 
the ceca with a small ulcer- 
ation caused by the protozoa. 

Symptoms. — Enterohepa- 
titis is common in turkeys 
between the ages of one month and one year, although I have 
seen the disease in birds that were much older. Several out- 
breaks have been studied in this laboratory. Only one case 
was found in the hen. It has been reported in the peacock. 

The symptoms are not manifest till the disease has pro- 
gressed to a considerable extent. The bird is first noticed to 
be dull, later the wings and tail may droop ; the feathers 
become ruffled and the bird sits around much of the time ; 
diarrhea supervenes, the discharge being of a greenish-yellow 
color ; there is a loss of appetite ; the bird grows gradually 
weaker, showing muscular weakness, droopy wings, and usu- 
ally dies in from three to ten days after the first symptoms 
of the disease become noticeable. In the cases that run longer 
the bird becomes emaciated. The head may or may not turn 
purple. From the cases in which the head turns purple the 
disease gets its name — blackhead. 

Although turkeys of all ages are susceptible to blackhead, 
youth suffers most. Cases seldom appear before the thir- 




Fig. 45. Enterohepatitis In a Turkey. 
A, yellowish-white necrotic areas. This 
liver weighed 452 grams, nearly one pound. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 113 

teenth day. The most critical period begins at about the 
thirty-fifth day after hatching. Young poults are observed 
to be sick no more than four to six days. While old birds 
may recover, young birds probably never do. 

Report of a Case of Blackhead 

Of eleven turkeys of the flock, six had died. One of the turkeys 
was brought to the laboratory for further study. The turkey's 
head was purple; there was a loss of appetite; a diarrhea was 
present and the discharge was yellowish-green in color. A blood 
study showed the following: Hemoglobin, 73 per cent; erythrocytes, 
2,000,000; leukocytes, 73,000. Differential count: eosinophiles, 86 
per cent; neuthrophiles, 1 per cent; lymphocytes, 11 per cent; mo- 
nonuclears, 1 per cent; mast cells, 1 per cent. The bird died and an 
autopsy was held. The following is a summary of the findings: 



A^ 




B 



Fig. 46. Cloudy Swelling Due to Enterohepatitis. 
This Is a Section From "B" in Fig. 66. 
(Magnified 900 Times). 
A, liver cells (cloudy swelling) ; B, liver cells un- 
dergoing disintegration, necrosis; C, congested blood 
vessel; D, white blood cells, eosinophiles abundant in 
this disease; E, protozoa causing the disease. 

Necrotic areas in the liver measuring up to four centimeters in 
diameter and of a yellowish-green color. Weight of the liver, 452 
grams. 

Ulceration of one cecum, four centimeters from the cecal end 
and extending three cm. in length. The outer surfaces of the ceca 
showed yellowish-green coloration. There was edema in the peri- 
cardial region. 

Treatment. — Thorough cleaning of henhouse and yard, fol- 
lowed by careful disinfection ; care as to feeding and watering, 
and intestinal antiseptics are indicated as recommended for 
fowl cholera. The following tablets gave the best results in 
our experiments : Sodium sulphocarbolate, T 1 /^ grains ; cal- 
cium sulphocarbolate, 7% grains ; zinc sulphocarbolate, 15 



J 14 POULTRY DISEASES 

grains. Dissolve one tablet in each quart of water. Thi- 
solution can be given as drink or used to mix with soft feed. 
It has long been known that milk feeding stimulates rapid 
growth in poultry as in all other animals. It has also been 
shown that milk feeding of chicks prevents to a large extent 
certain intestinal disorders. The same stimulating principle 
applies to turkeys and there is a possibility that acidity plays 




Fig. 47. Section of the Liver from a Case of Blackhead. 
a, protozoa causing the disease; b, a giant cell. 

an important role. Since the greater mortality is among 
young poults, Hadley has recommended a limited feeding as 
follows : First 48 hours no feed ; third day, chopped egg in- 
cluding shell is given at the rate of two grams a day. The 
amount of egg is gradually increased till the end of the tenth 
day, then gradually decreased until the end of the second 
week, when egg feeding is discontinued. The fourth day green 
chopped feed such as lettuce or sprouted oats is given in 



DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 115 



increasing amounts. On the fifth day rolled oats are added 
and discontinued at the end of the sixth week. On the ninth 
day mash is given as follows : corn meal 6 parts, wheat bran 
4 parts, middlings 2 parts, and linseed meal 1 part. Sour 
milk should be given throughout. 

The following scheme of feeding poults has been suggested 
by Hadley as a means of aiding in warding off blackhead : 

1. Hatch the turkey eggs in incubator, in the meantime having 
hens set on china eggs in nest boxes or brooders on the permanent 
range. 

2. Remove the poults from the incubators about twenty-four 
hours after hatching, and distribute at night among the hens, giv- 
ing from twelve to fourteen to 

each hen. Be sure to see that 
the hen accepts them before 
leaving them. 

3. Give no feeding before the 
poults are two days old. Each 
family may then receive two tea- 
spoonfuls of egg chopped fine 
with some green feed such as 
nettles, dandelion, onion tops or 
lettuce. A little cracker may be 
added to take up surplus moist- 
ure so that the mixture will not 
be pasty. 

4. This ration may be re- 
peated for the remainder of the 
feedings upon this day, or bread 
soaked in sweet milk may be 
substituted for the meal. 

5. During the first three or 
four days of feeding the poults 
receive four meals each day, at 
about eight o'clock, eleven, two 
and five; after this but three 
meals are given. 

6. On the second day of feeding about the same rations are 
given, but one of the meals may be of chick grain, and some rolled 
oats may be added to the chopped egg mixture. 

7. The third day of feeding is like the second. The poults are 
allowed to run in their enclosure. 

8. On the fourth or fifth day of feeding, the number of meals 
may be reduced to three, at eight o'clock, twelve and five. The 
amounts are slightly increased and a' little grit may be added. 

9. When the poults are about a week old they may be allowed 
to run free with the old hen on the range on pleasant days when 
the grass is dry. Chopped egg in the ration is reduced and omitted 
by the seventh day of feeding. 

10. On the sixth day, the feeding is put on a time basis. Sev- 
eral spoonfuls of feed are put on the tray and well distributed, 
but the poults are not allowed to eat for more than about three 
minutes at any one meal. 

11. By the end of the second week, the time limit is reduced to 




Fig. 48. 



Blood Smear from a Case of 
Blackhead. 

Showing intense eosinophilia; a, red 
blood cells; b, eosinophiles: c, Lhrorn- 
bocytes; d, lymphocytes; e, mononuclear 
leukocytes. 



116 



POULTRY DISEASES 



two and one-half minutes, since the poults are now obtaining more 
feed on the range in the form of insects. 

12. About the same time sour milk is introduced. It (whey and 
curd well mixed) is placed in shallow pans or in troughs, scattered 
about the range. It is at first given each morning and night at 
the rate of about one quart to each forty poults, and is gradually 
increased in amount until by the beginning of the fourth month 
one quart may be given for every twenty birds, each morning 
and night. 

13. During the second month, which is the critical period for 
young birds, the feeding is continued about as in the latter part 
of the first month. But, after the age of about six weeks, the 
number of meals per day may be reduced to two. Green feed in 
the form of chopped carrot tops, onion tops, or lettuce should he 
given in abundance; it should comprise at least one-half of the 




Fig. 49. Section of a Kidney, from a Turkey That Had 

Died of Blackhead. 

a, cloudy swelling; b, area of focal necrosis. 

ration for each meal. The time limit remains at about two and 
one-half minutes. 

14. When the poults are about six weeks old the nest or brooder 
coops should be replaced by larger houses made of lath and covered 
partly with roofing paper. Such a house may suffice until the 
poults are about three or four months old. These may be about 
three by five feet, and three feet high at the apex. Family houses 
should then be given up and all the poults, with their mothers, be 
brought together in a single roosting shed. 

15. The feeding for the third month is like that of the second 
except that the amount of milk is gradually increased and that 
grain mixture of equal parts of cracked corn and wheat may be 
gradually substituted for the chick grain. 

16. As the autumn months advance and insect life disappears, 
the time limit may be lengthened to three or three and one-half 
minutes. In rainy weather the noon-day meal may be added and 
a four-minute period allowed. Rolled oats may be omitted and the 
ration made to consist of grain mixture with an occasional feed 
of rolled oats or bread and milk. A mash may now be allowed 
containing some beef scrap. 




DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 117 

17. Before Thanksgiving the breeders for the coming season 
should be selected and marked. Their feeding for the winter may 
consist of the following grain mixture fed at the rate of one quart 
for six or seven turkeys each 
night and morning: cracked 
corn 3 parts, barley 2 parts, 
wheat 2 parts, oats 1 part. 

The owner of a flock of 
turkeys in which a number 
were affected with black- 
head reported to the author 
on the use of the sulpho- 
carbolates compound, as fol- 
lows : 

"Some of these turkeys were 
too sick to eat. In these cases 
a small piece of the tablet, one- 
half the size of a sweet pea, 

was dissolved and given twice Fig. SO. Cecum Showing Ulcera- 

a day. Nearly all of the birds tion. from a Case of Enterohepatitis 
so treated recovered." (blackhead) in a Turkey 

From work done in this labO- a ' "deration; c, blind end of cecum. 

ratory and from the foregoing 

report and similar reports from other sources, the author is led to 
believe that birds may recover if properly medicated, even after 
some degree of damage is done to the liver by the disease. 

NON-SPECIFIC DIARRHEA— ENTERITIS— DYSENTERY 

The most devastating form of diarrhea in poultry is an 
infectious disease due to a bacterium or to protozoon, and 
commonly called -'white diarrhea." It affects chiefly chicks 
less than three weeks old and will be discussed under a special 
head. Under this head I shall discuss those bowel ailments 
not due to any one specific germ. 

A condition of mild diarrhea is chronic in many fowls 
throughout life. In these cases there are no symptoms of 
the disease other than the softness or fluid condition of the 
feces. Though this condition is probably due to a mild form 
of indigestion and the birds may not thrive or fatten or lay 
as well as those not so affected, the condition is not serious 
and ordinarily the poultryman pays no attention to it. 

It is when the soft, pasty or liquid excrement has an of- 
fensive odor, and adheres to the feathers about the vent, stain- 
ing them yellowish, greenish or brownish, that the matter 
becomes serious and interferes with the health of the bird. 
Young stock are a great deal more susceptible to diarrhea 
from unfavorable conditions, of which the commonest are 
improper food and exposure to cold, than are adult birds. 

When this reaction to external influences (cold) or when 
the irritation from indigestible matter within the intestine be- 



118 



POULTRY DISEASES 



comes severe enough to set up an inflammation of the mucous 
lining of the small intestines, it is termed enteritis, and when 
it .extends to the large intestines it is called dysentery. In 
both conditions there is an increased thirst, loss of appetite, 
high fever and fluid discharge, and in the latter the discharges 
are streaked with blood. 

Cause. — Moldy, putrid, or too stimulating food, drinking 
water which contains much organic matter, and hence is filthy 
and putrid, and exposure to certain unfavorable atmospheric 
conditions are contributing factors, as is also the injection of 

irritant substances, such as 
lye, paint, spray-mixtures, 
unslaked lime, etc. 

Along with diarrhea due 
to these causes may be 
mentioned a like condition 
sometimes caused by the 
presence in the intestinal 
tract of certain species of 
worms and of irritating 
foods. Exposure in damp 
coops, cold rains, or 
draughts often results in 
digestive derangements of 
this nature. A bird, dur- 
ing molting, has poor pro- 
tection against inclement 
weather, from lack of 
feathers, and requires 
more care than at other 
times. 

Symptoms. — The plum- 
age loses its smooth, well- 
kept appearance ; the bird 
is depressed and not inclined to move about as much as 
usual ; there may be loss of appetite ; the crop is full ; diges- 
tion is slow; the cloaca is inflamed (red) and sensitive; 
the evacuations from the bowels are frequent, the discharges 
being fluid, offensive and varying in color from whitish- 
yellow to greenish. In later stages the evacuations are 
quite spasmodic and forcefully ejected (squirting) and the 
fluff and feathers near the vent are soiled with feces. The 
affected bird gradually becomes weaker and there is a rise in 
temperature. It may eat little or nothing; thirst is extreme 
in some cases. The bird may die in two or three days or it 
may live for two or three weeks. 




Fig. 51. Hemorrhagic Enteritis in a Hen. 
A, small hemorrhages (natural size). 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 119 

Postmortem Findings. — In fatal cases the most noticeable 
alterations are in the intestinal tract and the liver. Upon 
opening the small intestines, areas of inflammation are noted, 
and occasionally a small hemorrhage is found. Microscopic 
examination of stained sections from the vital organs (liver, 
kidney, etc.) reveals retrogressive changes; cloudy swelling 
being most marked. Fig. 51 illustrates one of these cases. 

Treatment. — Give the same treatment as that given for 
blackhead in turkeys and for fowl cholera. A diet of sour 
milk is helpful. (See white diarrhea, page 124.) 

WHITE DIARRHEA 

The loss to American poultry raisers from white diarrhea 
is greater than from anything else, perhaps greater than from 
all other infectious diseases combined. It strikes at the root 
of the poultry industry; no one can successfully conduct the 
business if he is unable to rear a reasonable number of chicks 
annually. 

Without treatment the resulting mortality, when white 
diarrhea has secured a foothold in a poultry plant, is ex- 
tremely high, often reaching ninety per cent of the season's 
hatch. The loss from white diarrhea in dollars and cents is 
enormous, almost beyond calculation. It is widespread through- 
out the United States and causes the loss of perhaps ten per 
cent of all the chicks hatched in this country. By proper meas- 
ures the disease is fairly easily preventable and a large num- 
ber of the affected chicks will recover under proper treatment. 

Causes. — There are two forms of white diarrhea, due to 
two distinct causes. A bacillary form due to the Bacterium 
pullorum, a rather short, plump, rodshaped germ with rounded 
ends; and a protozoal form due to the Coccidium tenellum. 
I have isolated the germ causing the disease from the liver, 
spleen, kidneys and other organs of chicks dead of the bacil- 
lary form of the disease, and in the coccidian form from the 
ulcers of the cecum and the intestines. 

Symptoms: Bacillary Form. — In young chicks there is 
drooping wings, ruffled feathers, sleepy appearance, huddled 
together, little or no appetite, abdominal yolk not properly 
absorbing; whitish or whitish-brown frothy dscharge from 
bowel which adheres more or less to the vent fluff ; eyes closed 
part of the time and apparently no interest in life. "Peep- 
ing" much of the time, the appearance in many is stilty, ab- 
domen prominent behind. In these cases after death one 
finds the yolk unabsorbed or only partially so. The intes- 
tines are more or less full. Late fall, winter or early spring 
hatched chicks are freer from the disease than summer 



120 POULTRY DISEASES 

hatched. This may be explained by the fact that hens with 
diseased ovaries gradually become poorer layers as the disease 
processes advance, and hence, only lay in late spring or early 
summer, when nature intends reproduction of birds. Finally 
the hen may cease laying. 

Symptoms: Goccidian Form. — The symptoms, as I have 
seen them, are similar to those of the bacillary form, except- 
ing, as a rule, the heavy death rate takes place later. 

Mode of Spread: Bacillary Form. — Ovaries of laying hens, 
diseased, but still functioning, may be infected by the germ. 
The germ can be isolated, particularly from the yolk, of at 
least some of the eggs formed in such an ovary. The chicks 
from infected eggs, as a result, have the disease more or less 
developed when they are hatched, as conditions which favor 
hatching also favor the multiplication of the germs to an ex- 
tent that toxins (poisons) have already been produced in the 
young in sufficient quantity for the disease to at least mani- 
fest itself in a few hours after hatching, although ordinarily 
they do not begin to die until they are about a week old. 

The whitish, frothy, pasty bowel discharge, more or less 
sticky and having a tendency to "paste up the vent," from 
these chicks is laden with the germs, and others of the flock 
soon become infected from contaminated food picked up from 
the ground. In the former case, chicks may begin to die soon 
after hatching; in the latter, in from three to four days, a 
few dying each day. 

The death rate is high, reaching in many cases as much as 
seventy-five per cent or more. Those that recover are stunted 
and do not make satisfactory growth. The greatest loss is 
from the first few days to, in some cases, two or three weeks. 
It is probable that the carriers are chicks that have recovered, 
but which still carry the organism (especially in the ovary) 
as the human typhoid carriers carry the germs of typhoid 
fever, in the infected kidneys and in bowel ulcers. These ' ' car- 
riers, " having established an immunity, do not themselves 
succumb to the disease, and they rarely show any outward 
symptoms of it. 

Insanitary conditions, spoiled feed, dirty, stagnant water, 
improperly ventilated incubators, brooders and buildings, or 
badly regulated heat, are factors in weakening the physical 
condition of chicks and favor ravages of diseases. 

Cocciclian Form. — The mode of spread of this form is at 
present problematical. It is possible that a chronic type of 
coccidiosis occurs in some birds and thus perpetuates and 
disseminates the protozoa. 

Postmortem Findings: bacillary foem. — The liver in general is 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 121 

usually pale, showing areas of congestion (active and passive con- 
gestion and cloudy swelling). The yolk is only partially absorbed; 
congestion of the intestines may or may not be present. The 
kidneys are normal in size, but show congestion and cloudy swelling. 
The carcass is more or less pale, emaciated and anemic. 

coccidian form. — Upon postmortem examination the conditions are 
found to be similar to those in the bacillary form, except there will 
be noted more or less congestion of the intestinal mucosa (lining), 
and ulcers in the intestines, principally the ceca. The ceca appear 
to contain considerable ingesta, and to be interfered with func- 
tionally. 

Fig. 52 shows a transverse section through an ulcerated area. 
In these areas we find cloudy swelling, followed by necrosis (retro- 
gressive changes and death of the cells). The remains of the dead 
cells form a cheesy mass (caseation necrosis). It will be noted 
in this drawing that only remnants of a few of the glands normally 
present are yet intact, the remainder of the mucous membrane and 
in places the submucous layers are invaded by the germ (protozoon). 
In Fig. 53 the section B has been magnified 900 times. 

As explained under the cut, all stages of the coccidium tenellum 
are observed in a mass of dying and disintegrating cells — the re- 
mains of the diseased mucous lining of the bowel. Repeated exami- 
nations nave been made of healthy chicks killed for the purpose, 
and chicks dying from other causes, and thus far no case has shown 
these conditions. 

In the establishment of the fact that the hen may become chronic- 
ally infected by the Bacterium pullorum, it also means that she 
is one of the main sources of infection through the eggs she forms 
and lays. She may remain chronically infected following a case of 
white diarrhea while a baby chick or she may acquire the infection 
after she is mature. This acquisition may be by consuming con- 
taminated food. The permanent seat of infection appears to be 
the ovary, which in many instances becomes so gre,atly involved 
that the ova are discolored and misshapen, and the ovary presents 
a decidedly pathological appearance. The ova harbor the disease 
organism. Ova which develop apparently normal yolks frequently 
carry the organism, Bacterium pullorum, to the time of full forma- 
tion of the egg. Infected eggs produce infected chicks and although 
infected chicks frequently succumb before their embryonic develop- 
ment is completed or before they pip out of the shell (dead germs), 
a large percentage of them emerge from the shell apparently sound 
and well. However, they soon acquire the disease and many of 
them fall prey to the organism which they carried for a long time 
in their yolk. These chicks are a constant source of infection to 
other chicks and to the mature stock. 

A system has been develop^ to test the hens to determine if 
they are bacillary carriers. This consists of applying the agglu- 
tination test. 

Jones in 1912 reports an outbreak of a disease among adult 
fowls from which the Bacterium pullorum was isolated and to which 
he attributed the disease. Among 700 hens the mortality was 50 
per cent. There had been no history of bacillary white diarrhea 
on the farm. A neighbor had been meeting with serious losses, 
however, and a number of eggs from his fowls were incubated on 
the farm which had hitherto been free from the disease. Nearly 
all the chicks that were hatched from these eggs died within ten days 
from bacillary white diarrhea. The eggs that failed to hatch were 
inadvertently fed to adult hens. In these dead hens the Bacterium 



122 



POULTRY DISEASES 



pullorum was isolated from various internal organs, as well as from 
chicks hatched from the neighbor's eggs. 

Retger, Hull and Sturges report three fowls out of twelve dying 
following feeding boullion cultures of the Bacterium pullorum. 
These cultures were fed along with the regular mash. The Bac- 
terium pullorum was isolated from the liver, lungs, heart and spleen. 
They attributed death to these organisms. 

Smith and Ten Broeck report that bacterium-free nitrates of 
*ive to fifteen day old bouillon cultures of Bacterium pullorum 
were decidedly toxic to full grown rabbits when given by intraven- 
ous injections. Death followed within two hours, or there was 
marked dyspnea, followed by death over night or by loss of weight 
and subsequent recovery. 




Fig. 52. Section Through Cecum 
(Magnified 100 Times). 
From a chick that had died of 
coccidian white diarrhea. A, mus- 
cular layer; B, remnant of gland; 
C, degenerated disintegrating mass. 
There is complete destruction of 
the mucous membrane. 



Fig. S3. Section "B" in Fig. 
(Magnified 900 Times). 
Shows various stages of the Coc- 
cidium tenellum. A, oocyst; B, 
sporoblast, first stage; C, sporozoit, 
first stage; D, schizont, merozoites 
within, surrounded by a disinte- 
grating cell mass; E, polymorpho- 
nuclear leukocyte. 



Gauge reports that rabbits are very susceptible to very small 
doses of the Bacterium pullorum by subcutaneous injections. 

Retger, Hull and Sturges in a summary of their work state that 
eggs that harbor Bacterium pullorum in the yolk in large numbers 
may produce abnormal conditions, when fed, not only in young 
chicks, but in adult fowls, young rabbits, guinea pigs and kittens. 

When infected eggs are allowed to remain under the hen in nests 
for a considerable time or in warm rooms during storage and in 
transit, these bacteria rapidly increase in numbers. In a poultry 
survey as to the prevalence of bacillary carriers among hens, it 
was found in Connecticut that out of 107 flocks subjected to the 
agglutination tests, 1,417 out of 13,831 fowls reacted; that is 10.24 
per cent gave positive reactions and of the flocks 74 per cent were 
infected. In Massachusetts more than 50 per cent in some flocks 
reacted. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 123 

Treatment. — The most of our experimental work with vari- 
ous remedies has been with the coccidian form. In one out- 
break, referred to above, 80 per cent of the first hatch of 2,000 
chicks had died. We began trying to improve sanitary condi- 
tions, and administered various dilutions of permanganate of 
potash, copperas and carbolic acid. The loss was unaffected. 
By this time the writer had examined many dozen birds in the 
laboratory, and in about 50 per cent of the cases, the Bacte- 
rium pullorum was isolated from the heart blood, liver, spleen 
and kidneys, and in every case the coccidian ulcers, described 
above, were observed. 

These chicks began dying in numbers at about ten days of 
age, very few had died before that time, and from this period 
to the end of the third week the greatest loss occurred. After 
this time but few died, but those having the disease in light 
form were stunted and did not make satisfactory growth. 
With this data now before me, I began on another line of 
treatment. 

During the past ten years I have used, to a greater or less 
extent, dilutions of mercuric chlorid (corrosive sublimate) as 
an intestinal antiseptic in chickens. This was used, in this 
outbreak, in a solution of 1 : 10,000, with sulphocarbolates of 
zinc, sodium and calcium. The latter had not given the satis- 
factory results when used alone that it had in treatment of 
diarrhea in colts and calves. 

Jones (Cornell) has shown that a solution of 1 # : 1,000 (one- 
tenth of one per cent) bichlorid of mercury, will kill the B. 
pullorum in thirty seconds ; a one per cent carbolic acid solu- 
tion requires five minutes in which to kill this germ; one per 
cent creolin requires five minutes ; three and one-third per 
cent lactic acid kills it in five minutes, and five per cent car- 
bolic acid kills it in thirty seconds. Mercuric chlorid is there- 
fore fifty times as effective against this germ as is carbolic 
acid. 

Instructions were given for the incubators (containing also 
the nursery trays) to be tightly closed and fumigated with 
formaldehyd gas, as recommended under chicken cholera, 
before filling with eggs. 

After chicks were hatched they were not to receive any 
feed for forty-eight to seventy-two hours, as the yolk con- 
tained in their abdominal cavity will furnish food for that 
length of time, and an engorgement of the intestines might 
impinge on this part and interfere with its absorption by press 
ing on the absorbing vessels. 

The following solution was to be kept before them from 
the time of hatching to four weeks of age, and then given 



124 



POULTRY DISEASES 



twice a week for the next few Aveeks : Zinc sulphocarbolate, 
fifteen grains; sodium and calcium sulphocarbolate, of each 
seven and one-half grains; bichlorid of mercury, six grains, 
and citric acid, three grains. This quantity was dissolved in 
a gallon of water. The result was that eighty per cent of the 
next hatch was saved. 

A diet of sour milk in white diarrhea and other bowel ail- 
ments, of a similar nature, has given excellent results. Cul- 
tures of the Bacillus bulgaricus in milk is recommended in all 
diarrhea of birds. Chicks should be fed sour milk as soon as 
hatehed. 

TRICHOMONIASIS 

Trichomoniasis of chicks has recently been described. The 
baby chicks are attacked at the age of 10 to 14 days. After 
four weeks old they are immune. Diarrhea may be absent in 
the early cases but present in later stages and chronic cases. 
The acute cases die in from one to two days. More vigorous 
birds enter the chronic stage. 

The affected chicks droop, huddle together, do not refuse 
to eat, wings drag, eyes are closed, heads pale, temperature 
subnormal, 102° Fah. 

At autopsy there are noted no lesions except an anemic con- 
dition. The cecum may be 
slightly enlarged and its 
contents slimy and the 
crypts in the mucosa are 
found to be filled with the 
Trichomonas pullorum. 

CROUPOUS INFLAMMA- 
TION OF THE PIGEON 

There is a condition in 
pigeons in which there ap- 
pears a mass in the upper 
portion of the esophagus 
and other parts. It is il- 
lustrated in Fig 54. The 
squabs become affected 
early, and as the diseased 
or tumor-like area becomes 
larger, due to the accumu- 
lation of croupous exudate, 
the bird is unable to eat or swallow. The loss in some breed- 
ing establishments is considerable. The disease area mani- 




Fig. 54. Croupous Inflammation in a 
Pigeon. 
A, necrosing mass made up of pus cells, 
fibrin and debris. 



DISEASES OP THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 125 

fests itself as a lump in the throat or neck, which is easily 
felt. 

Treatment. — It will he necessary to keep the premises thor- 
oughly clean, constantly disinfected, washed with an antisep- 
tic. The trays after each batch of squabs need to be cleaned 
and disinfected, as, in fact, does the entire building. 

Some good results have been obtained by treating these 
squabs early with a solution of iodin applied to the part with 
a swab after first curetting out the mass. Also other anti- 
septics recommended for chicken cholera may be used. If the 
disease has progressed very far, it is best to kill the squab 
and cremate it. 

A condition similar to this has been called canker. The following 
is the experience of Dr. E. J. Foreman who is a breeder of fine 
pigeons: 

"I have had several pigeons die of this trouble or a trouble similar 
to the condition you describe. 

"I have operated on a number by making a free incision and re- 
moving the cheesy deposit, swabbing out the cavity with iodin after 
which they make a nice recovery. The beak is sometimes deformed 
following the disease and treatment. I never have found pus. The 
mucous membrane, after the paste-like substance has been removed, 
is usually reddish in color but I find no ulcer underlying it. This 
trouble develops in young birds, and mostly in those still accepting 
feed from the mother. 

"The following are the results of some autopsies: 

"Case 1. — I found this squab dead in the morning. A mass of 
yellowish, fibrinous deposit was found in the esophagus at a point 
near the entrance of the thorax. There was nothing visible in the 
mouth or nasal chambers. 

"Case 2. — This one developed a large tumefaction above the left 
eye which caused a profuse flow of tears. An incision was made 
above the eye and the deposit removed, after which the cavity was 
swabbed with iodin. There was a second exudate in the roof of 
the mouth. This material was removed and the part swabbed with 
iodin. The bird made a complete recovery. 

"Case 3. — There was a very large swelling in the cervical region 
in this case. A free incision was made into the tumefaction and 
the large deposit of putty-like material removed. The cavity was 
swabbed out with iodin and the incision sutured. Partial recovery 
followed, but there appeared a small mass of material between the 
edges of the wound. This material was removed and the part again 
swabbed with iodin and the bird made a nice recovery. This bird, 
though recovering, still lacks vigor and may possibly have other 
affections. 

"Where internal lesions appear as in the chest cavity or abdominal 
cavity the bird manifests symptoms of 'going light,' appears languid, 
dull, stupid, losing its appetite, gradually becoming emaciated and 
finally dying. In these cases usually internal lesions may be found. 

"Case 4. — This was in a young bird that had escaped from the 
nest. Its head was bady lacerated by the old birds picking it. There 
was no indication of canker. After several days the bird died and 



126 POULTRY DISEASES 

at autopsy showed a large mass at the lower part of the crop. 
There was almost a continuous layer extending over the mucous 
membrane from the larynx to the bronchi. At the point of entrance 
of the lungs by the bronchi, there were observed greenish gan- 
grenous spors. The lower bowel was filled with a soft, greenish 
white fecal matter. 

"Case 5. — The symptoms of this bird were those of going light. 
This bird appeared rather full between the anus and sternum. Upon 
making an incision the intestines and liver were apparently forced 
out of the opening. The liver was enormously enlarged. The center 
was filled with a large cheesy mass, deep yellow or orange in color. 
There were small spots of this substance throughout the liver. There 
were also deposits along the course of the intestines. 

"Case 6. — This bird passed through the typical symptoms of going 
light. Great marasmus and cachexia. There was no indication of 
cheesy matter in the mouth or head. The usual whitish fecal matter 
was found in the lower bowel. The skin appeared leathery and 
dark. The abdominal cavity was crowded as in case No. 5. The 
entire abdominal cavity was covered with material which was closely 
adherent and seemed very tough. 

"In these birds there appears to be no rise in temperature. The 
average temperature of old birds is about 108 degrees Fahrenheit 
and of squabs as soon as they leave the nest perhaps a trifle higher. 
Squabs in the nest appear to have a trifle lower temperature than 
those that have left the nest. The hen with squabs just hatched per- 
haps runs a trifle higher." 

In a study of the lesion of the esophagus of the squab there was 
found that the underlying structures, in this case connective tissue 
in the throat region, was invaded with polymorphonuclear leukocytes 
and lmpyhocytes. Farther along there is but a mass of leukocytes 
which have now become pus cells and finally a piled up mass of, at 
first caseating pus cells in different stages of disintegration, and then 
simply a homogeneous mass which stains uniformly pink with the 
hematoxylon-eosin stain. Like in the fowl, pus in the pigeon is not 
liquid or semi-liquid but of a cheesy nature. 

Treatment. — I have successfully treated some of these cases 
by curetting out the throat which is made possible by grasp- 
ing the throat below the tumefaction and forcing it upward, 
then inserting through the mouth the curette and removing 
the cheesy mass. Then this part is injected by means of a 
dropping pipette with iodin, alcohol or what is acting very 
nicely is the menthol, oil eucalyptus and oil thyme given 
under roup treatment. A similar disease has been studied in 
the fowl, in which cases the croupous mass accumulates in the 
pharyngeal region and can be easily scraped off. The parts 
are then treated the same as in the pigeon. 

COCCIDIOSIS IN WILD DUCKS 

Two wild ducks (mallards) were sent to the laboratory by 
the game warden of Colorado during the fall of 1910, with 
the history that they had been found dead on a reservoir, and 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 127 




that the wild ducks were dying in large numbers. A careful 
autopsy was held on these birds. There were small pearl-like 
nodules throughout the lung of one of the ducks, as shown in 
Pig. 55. Both showed ulcerations of the mucous membrane 
of the intestinal tract. These ulcerations were numerous, as 
many as eight or ten in each bird, and extended the entire 
length of the intestines. Fig. 56 illustrates this condition. 
Upon microscopic exami- 
nation of these lesions, as 
well as of the lung nod- 
ules, coccidia were noted 
which resembled the Coc- 
cidium tenellum, one of 
the specific causes of white 
diarrhea in chicks. 

PROTOZOAL HEPATITIS 
OF PIGEONS 

Rivolta found a proto- 
zoan provided with one or 
two flagella which he 
called Cercomonas hepatis. 
These protozoa penetrate 
the liver of the pigeon and 
produce necrotic areas. 
The liver appears enlarged 
and studded with greyish- 
yellow multiple foci. 

Young pigeons may die suddenly without showing symp- 
toms of any disease. 

RENAL COCCIDIOSIS 

The Coccidium avium may invade various organs of the 
body and produce lesions from which the bird may finally 
succumb. 

Railliet observed the invasion of the kidneys of the goose 
in which the symptoms were those of progressive emaciation, 
weak, staggery gait. At times the bird may roll over on its 
back, thus assuming a dorsal position. There is a loss of appe- 
tite, gradual emaciation, unthrifty appearance and finally 
death. 

At autopsy the kidneys showed small whitish nodules, vary- 
ing in size up to a pinhead. At times the lesions are found 
rather diffused. A microscopic examination of the nodules 
show them to be filled with masses of the encysted coccidia. 



Fig. SS. Pulmonary Coccidiosis in a Duck. 

A, nodules in lung caused by the cocci- 
dium (natuial size). 

Fig. 56. Intestinal Coccidiosis in a Duck. 

B, ulcers caused by the coccidium« (natural 
size). 



128 POULTRY DISEASES 

BLASTOMYCOSIS OF THE GOOSE 

This condition has been observed by Martin. At autopsy 
there were found small cysts attached to the capsule of the 
liver. The cysts varied in size up to a pea. They are seldom 
if ever found in the liver substance. The cysts are yellowish- 
white in color, fluctuate and resemble somewhat the small 
echinococcic cysts. Upon microscopic examination yeast-like 
bodies were found which somewhat resembled the Oidium 
albicans. Some may be found in the process of budding. The 
liquid of the cy^t is of a yellowish color and of a gelatinous 
consistency. The cells are provided with a capsule and eon- 
tain a homogeneous protoplasm in the center of which is ob- 
served a nucleus. 

SARCOCYSTIS 

Sarcocystis is also called psorospermosis. It is dut. to a sin- 
gle-celled sporozoal parasite. It may affect the striped and 
unstriped muscular tissue, connective tissue and at times the 
visceral structures. 

Kuhn has described a sarcocyst as affecting the domestic 
fowl. 

CLOACITIS 

Symptoms. — The anus becomes red (inflamed), protrudes, 
and later ulcerates. In a case treated in the laboratory anti- 
septics were applied and injected into the cloaca with the 
view of destroying the germs causing the trouble, but the bird 
died. Upon autopsy it was found that acute inflammation 
had extended the entire length of the rectum. See Pig. 2 for 
this portion of the anatomy. The latter condition would be 
called a proctitis. 

Hoare describes a contagious catarrh affecting the cloaca 
and sometimes extending to the mucous membrane of the 
lower portion of the oviduct and to the rectum. It may be 
communicated from bird to bird by copulation. 

Treatment. — In these cases apply a solution of sulphocar- 
bolates compound, five per cent carbolized vaselin, or a solu- 
tion of five per cent carbolic acid in warm water. The solu- 
tions may be injected with a syringe and the ointment applied 
with the finger. 

The best results have been obtained by the injections of a 
five per cent solution of sulphate of iron three times a day. 

PERITONITIS 

Acute peritonitis is rare. It may result from the irritation 
that follows from rupture of the oviduct. It may accompany 
aspergillosis or fowl cholera. 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT 129 

Symptoms. — Pain on palpation of the abdomen, and pain- 
ful defecation. There may be a loss of appetite, dullness, and 
later marked prostration and death. 

Chronic peritonitis is more common than the acute type. 

Post Mortem Appearance. — The surface of the peritoneum 
appears rough and flakes of purulent material are found 
among- the intestines and other abdominal organs. This type 
is a purulent peritonitis and is the one most common. 

ASCITES 

Ascites has been observed in both fowls and canaries. 

It has been found to appear in certain diseased conditions 
of the liver, kidney or heart. It may also appear in chronic 
nonsuppurative inflammation of the peritoneum. 

Symptoms. — Great distension of the abdomen. Upon shak- 
ing the bird the liquid may be heard within. Palpation does 
not reveal the abdominal cavity filled with hard objects. 

Treatment. — Tap the abdominal cavity and allow the liquid 
to escape. For this purpose a hollow needle (a hypodermic 
needle will do) is used. Give two grains of potassium iodid 
in capsule by the mouth twice daily. 

NEPHRITIS 

Acute nephritis is frequently met with in fowls. Baby 
chicks which are allowed to be exposed to cold rains' and be- 
come chilled or which are not properly cared for and improper 
heat supplied, suffer with acute congestion and inflammation 
of the kidneys. 

Symptoms. — Acute and chronic inflammation interferes 
with the appetite, arrests growth and at times there is a loss 
of coordination. 

Post Mortem Exammation. — The kidneys are increased in 
size ; the tissue is rather firm in consistency in the chronic 
type. The organ may, in chronic cases, be of a greyish-yellow 
color. There is hypertrophy of the interstitial connective tis- 
sue. The uriniferous tubules are partly destroyed and the 
epithelium in many parts may be in a state of fatty degenera- 
tion, i 

Chronic indurative nephritis is noted often. 

Acute parenchymatous nephritis has been observed in hens 
dying of purulent peritonitis and purulent inflammation of 
the air sacs. 



130 POULTRY DISEASES 

SUPPURATIVE INFLAMMATION OF THE GIZZARD 

A Single Comb Rhode Island Red cock two years old, used 
as a breeder, showed a slight diarrhea, "mopiness" and no 
interest in life. He became gradually weaker and died. 

The carcass was thin there being an absence of retroperi- 
toneal fat. There was a suppurative inflammation of the pos- 
terior half of the gizzard. The posterior portion of the giz- 
ard cavity contained a quantity of cheesy pus. The liver 
weighed 60 grams and presented a greyish mottled appear- 
ance. The testes were in an atrophic condition showing that 
he was entirely inactive as a breeder. 

A section of the gizzard including a portion of apparently 
normal gizzard tissue and through the involved area was pre- 
pared and sectioned and stained with hematoxylon, eosin and 
picric acid. A portion of the adjacent muscle was densely 
infiltrated with polymorphonuclear leukocytes as well as a 
zone of newly formed connective tissue. This was apparently 
a chronic suppurative inflammation. The pus consisted of 
fibrinous material and masses of pus cells. 

Sections of the liver prepared and stained with hematoxylon 
and eosin showed intense active and passive congestion with 
hemaciderosis. There was an acute inflammation, the poly- 
morphonuclear leukocytes appearing more densely infiltrated 
in the perivascular spaces and immediately adjacent tissue. In 
some areas the inflammation appeared rather diffused while 
in other parts of the liver there appeared a tendency toward 
focalized areas of inflammation. 

CALCULI 

Urinary sediment in the form of calculi has been found in 
the fowl. These deposits may be located in the small collect- 
ing and transporting tubules of the renal tissue and may 
consist principally of uric acid. These deposits appear as 
small nodules. 

PURULENT INFLAMMATION OF THE ABDOMEN OF THE 

HEN 

Purulent abdominal inflammation is quite common in hens. 
Especially is this the ease with hens of two or more years of 
age. Nonspecific infections are the cause of a portion of these 
cases. 

The following case serves as an example of purulent peri- 
tonitis of the hen. 

The subject was a two-year old S. C. Rhode Island Red hen. 
After death the unfeathered region of the head was of a deep 



DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TKACT 131 

purplish red. There was slimy mucus in the mouth. The general 
condition of the plumage was fairly good. The carcass had a fair 
amount of fat on it. The liver appeared dark, but normal in size. 
The gall bladder was full of bile. The peritoneal surfaces were 
covered by a mildew-like material. The carcass was cold due to 
the fact that it had been in refrigeration over night. This mildewed 
condition may have been due, in part, to this cause. The spleen 
was normal in size and appearance. The intestines appeared normal 
except for the above described condition. Ingesta and a small 
amount of gas were contained in the intestines. The ceca and 
large intestines contained a small amount of ingesta. The pancreas 
appeared normal. The kidneys were of a light mottled grey, the 
anterior lobes appearing swollen and highly congested — apparently 
blocked with the pasty, white urinary secretions. There was 
present cloudy swelling. The ureters were distended with urinary 
secretions of a pasty nature. The ovary was inactive and of a 
pinkish color. The accumulated material of the right ureter was 
thinner and more slimy than the left, and upon a microscopic ex- 
amination, was found to be teeming with short, chained, strep- 
tococci; pus cells of both mononuclear and polymorphonuclear 
varieties and sodium urate crystals were present. There was about 
5 cc. of a thin, milky liquid in the peritoneal cavity. The strep- 
tococci seemed to be confined to the abdominal region affected with 
purulent inflammation. Microscopic examination of the pleural 
fluid, lungs, blood and heart blood revealed nothing abnormal. 

A microscopic examination of sections from the kidneys stained 
with hematoxylon and eosin showed both active and passive con- 
gestion, with cloudy swelling. There were pus cells and hemorrhage 
into the collecting tubules. Areas here and there showed localized 
nephritis as evidenced by the area being packed with polymor- 
phonuclear and mononuclear leukocytes, similar to those found in 
the peritoneal exudates. 

INTESTINAL DISEASES OF CANARIES 

. Intestinal troubles in canaries are usually due to errors in 
feeding and watering. In diarrhea remove all green feed and 
do not give any soft feed. Give just the normal seed supply. 
Feed the bird with a small piece of wet bread on which has 
been sprinkled subnitrate of bismuth. If the case does not 
yield to this treatment place in the drinking cup one ounce 
of clear water in which has been placed four drops tincture 
of opium and fifteen drops whisky or brandy. 

In case of constipation give plenty of green feed such as 
lettuce, apple, chick weed. Add a pinch of Epsom salts to the 
drinking water. Make the water so that it has a faintly saline 
taste of the Epsom salts. 



SECTION VI 

BLOOD DISEASES 

Under blood diseases come the septicemias, as apoplectiform 
septicemia, septicemia of geese, typhoid of fowls, and spiro- 
chetosis, all caused by germs which live and multiply in the 
blood stream. 

APOPLECTIFORM SEPTICEMIA IN CHICKENS AND 

PIGEONS 

This disease is due to the Streptococcus gallinarum, which 
grows in long or short chains. It can be readily grown upon 
artificial media and does not liquefy gelatin. Experimental 
inoculations with this organism killed the following animals: 
chickens, mice, rabbits and swine. It does not kill guinea pigs 
or dogs. The germ multiplies in the blood. 

Symptoms. — Apoplectiform septicemia is rapid in its prog- 
ress. The bird shows great prostration, feathers ruffled, loss 
of appetite, and the condition rapidly terminates in death. 
Often birds die in from twelve to twenty-four hours after the 
first symptoms appear. Birds in which no symptoms of the 
disease had been noticed may be found dead under the roosts. 
This disease often causes great loss to pigeon fanciers. 

Postmortem Findings. — The spleen is enlarged, dark and 
soft; focal necrosis is noted in the kidneys, spleen and liver. 
Cloudy swelling also occurs preceding this state. Pneumonia 
may be present. The germs can be isolated in pure culture 
from any of the organs named. 

Treatment. — Observe the rules of sanitation, as directed 
for chicken cholera (Page 110). If possible, separate the well 
birds from the sick. Vaccination with a vaccine made from 
the Streptococcus gallinarum has given good results. Sulpho- 
carbolates compound may be tried, as outlined in the article 
on chicken cholera before mentioned. 

SEPTICEMIA OF GEESE 

This disease has been described as being caused by a germ 
which closely resembles the polar staining germ of chicken 
cholera. It multiplies in the blood. 

Symptoms. — Geese are often found dead without having 
been noted to have been ill. The majority die very quickly, 
that is, within two or three hours after the first symptoms 
appear. Occasionally a bird may live for several days and 
finally die. 



134 POULTRY DISEASES 

Postmortem Findings. — Small pinpoint hemorrhages may 
be noted, especially in the mucous lining of the intestines. 
Usually the digestive tract contains feed in all stages of diges- 
tion, indicating that the disease is very rapid in its onset. 
Considerable mucus may be found in the mouth and throat. 
Inflammation may be noted in the liver, pericardium (heart 
sac), spleen and kidneys. 

Treatment. — Sanitary measures the same as those given for 
chicken cholera. (See page 110.) 

FOWL TYPHOID. INFECTIOUS LEUKEMIA 

This is due to a short, plump germ with rounded ends. It 
is called the Bacterium sanguinarium, and is easily isolated 
from birds dead of the disease. It reproduces the disease in 
inoculated birds, multiplying in the blood. 

The disease is confined to chickens. The period of incuba- 
tion is given as one to two months. The course of the disease 
is from one to two weeks to as long as three months. Birds 
rarely recover. 

Symptoms. — Anemic or blanched appearance of the mucous 
membrane of the head, with a dull appearance and great pros- 
tration, usually ending in death in about four days, is charac- 
teristic of this disease. In some cases the affected bird may 
live three to four weeks. Moore reports a decrease in red blood 
cells and an increase in white blood cells, the latter princi- 
pally the polymorphonulear leukocytes. 

Postmortem Findings. — The liver is enlarged and mottled 
with greyish patches, due to areas of leukocytic invasion. The 
germ can be isolated from the internal organs. The kidney 
shows congestion, which may be recognized by the minute red 
lines. The intestines may be congested. The spleen usually 
appears normal in size and color. The red blood cells gradu- 
ally diminish and a leukocytosis (an increase of the white 
blood cells) appears. 

MYELOID LEUKEMIA 

Schmeisser has shown that spontaneous leukemia occurs in 
the fowl. It is transmissible by the intravenous or intra-peri- 
toneal injection of an organic emulsion. 

The chemical picture and changes produced in the blood 
and organs are analogous to those which occur in human leu- 
kemia. 

In a case of spontaneous leukemia the following differential count 
was found: 

Polymorphonuclear with eosinophilic rods 8 per cent 

Polymorphonuclear with eosinophilic granules per cent 



BLOOD DISEASES 135 

Lymphocytes - 2 per cent 

Large monoculear cells 30 per cent 

Mast cells - per cent 

Mononuclear myelocyte with eosinophilic granules 52 per cent 

Unclassified cells 8 per cent 

100 per cent 

It is associated by an infiltration of large mononuclear leu- 
kocytes. Atrophy of the bone marrow is noted. There is noted 
an accumulation of white blood cells in the bone marrow, 
spleen and liver. The bone marrow appears greyish-red in 
color. 

Treatment. — Prompt isolation of the well from the sick 
birds and sanitary measures as given for fowl cholera should 
be observed. 

SLEEPING SICKNESS OF CHICKENS 

This disease is due to a gram-positive encapsulated strep- 
tococcus. As prominent symptoms there is noted reddened 
and swollen conjunctiva. The bird appears "droopy" and 
drowsy. The comb and wattles appear pale. There is a diar- 
rhea and emaciation rapidly ensues. 

SEPTICEMIC DISEASES OF CANARY BIRDS 

Septicemia of Canary Birds 

This disease is due to a motile bacillus. The cultures on 
potatoes are a characteristic yellowish-grey. As a prominent 
symptom there is noted a soot-like discoloration of the skin. 
At autopsy there is noted small necrotic foci in the liver. 

Cholera of Canary Birds 

This disease is due to a non-motile bacillus. It does not take 
the polar staining. In cultures it produces fetid gases. On 
potato it produces yellowish colonies. It is very fatal run- 
ning a rapid course. Chickens and pigeons inoculated with 
the pure culture succumb to the disease. 

Infectious Necrosis of Canary Birds 

The bird appears droopy with loss of appetite. Singing 
birds cease to sing and remain quiet on the perch. Upon 
examination of the mouth cavity diphtheric areas are noted. 
On autopsy small necrotic areas are noted in the liver and 
spleen. The germ is a short non-motile Gram-negative bacillus. 

Typhoid of Canary Birds 

This disease is due to a bacillus of the enteritidis group. 
The prominent symptoms are those of debility, difficult respi- 



136 POULTEY DISEASES 

ration and diarrhea. The course is rather rapid. On autopsy 
there is noted an acute gastro-intestinal catarrh, and a fibri- 
nous inflammation of the serous membranes and cloudy swell- 
ing of the liver and kidneys. 

FOWL PEST 
(Pestis Avium) 

This is an acute contagious and infectious disease of fowls. 
It may attack chickens, geese, turkeys, pheasants, sparrows, 
parrots, pigeons and owls. The infective agent is contained in 
the blood, nasal discharges, nervous system and droppings. 

The disease may be transmitted to chickens by inoculation 
of emulsions from these sources from the infected fowl. These 
emulsions filtered through porcelain and the filtrate injected 
into a chicken produced the disease. Landsteiner claims that 
the blood corpuscles are more virulent than when serum alone 
is injected. 

The virus kept in sealed glass tubes retains its virulency for 
at least three months. The filtrate proved virulent for only 
one week. Centanni found that a temperature of 65 degrees 
Fahrenheit killed the virus at once and 55 degrees Fahrenheit 
in thirty minutes. The virus remained active in dried liver 
and spinal cord for 200 days, and in blood mixed with gly- 
cerin 270 days. Drying in a thin layer kills it (Ostertag). It 
is destroyed by five per cent creolin, three per cent chlorate 
of lime and one per cent corrosive sublimate. 

The disease is probably spread by contaminations from the 
droppings and nasal secretions. The feet of man and animals, 
utensils and clothing coming in contact with the contagion 
may transmit the disease. Birds introduced into the flock 
from infected flocks or placed in infected runs or coops may 
serve as a source of infection. Macerated parasites (blood 
sucking) removed from sick birds and these injected into sus- 
ceptible birds did not produce the disease. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation is from three to five 
days. The bird first appears depressed with loss of appetite; 
later dull and sleepy. The comb and wattles appear dark red 
and the bird sits with droopy wings, and gives a peculiar loud 
cry when picked up. The walk is irregular and staggery. 
Toward the end of the disease greyish scales sometimes de- 
velop on the skin, especially on the face and around the eyes. 
The nasal discharge is of a reddish or greyish color and rather 
viscid in consistency. Similar secretions are noted in the 
mouth and throat. The bird if distressed by obstruction from 
mucus accumulation may throw its head causing a discharge 
of a quantity of the secretion. The droppings are grey or 



BLOOD DISEASES 



137 



greenish and occasionally diarrhea accompanies the disease. 
The disease is fatal in from two to three days to seven days, 
depending on the natural resistance of the bird and the viru- 
lency of the causative organism. 

Autopsy. — In very acute cases lesions may be absent or only 
lightly marked. There may be hemorrhages in the serous 
membranes as the peritoneum, pericardium or on the viscera, 
and congestion of the liver, spleen and kidneys. In less acute 
cases there may be edema of the subcutaneous connective tis- 
sues of the neck and breast. The pericardium may contain a 
quantity of pale yellow, slightly cloudy fluid. Fibrinous exu- 
date has been noted in the pericardium and peritoneum. 
There is a catarrhal swelling of the conjunctival mucous mem- 
branes. The mouth and nasal passage contain a quantity of 
mucus. The lungs may be congested. The intestines may be 
congested or there may be inflammation. Hemorrhages may 
be noted. 

Treatment. — Steps should be taken as in other contagious 
and infectious diseases. Maggiora claims that hyperimmu- 
nized goose blood has curative properties as well as capability 
of producing passive immunity. 

THROMBOSIS 

A bird was sent to the laboratory with the history that it 
had been sick for several weeks. There was a partial loss- of 
appetite, finally complete 
loss ; the bird showed weak- 
ness and a gradual emacia- 
tion. The hen died in 
about two weeks after com- 
ing to the laboratory. 

On autopsy there was 
noted great emaciation. 
All organs appeared nor- 
mal except the circulatory 
system. There was throm- 
bosis (complete plugging) 
of the right brachial artery 
(artery to right wing) and 
the same of the large ves- 
sel to the liver, as well as 
of the iliac and femoral 
artery of the left side( ar- 
tery tO left leg). Upon mi- Fig. 57. Thrombosis in a Hen. 

CrOSCOpic exaniinat ion A, pelvic bone, central portion; B, muscle 

.-> _ p i i ■, of thigh; C, blood vessel containing a white 

there were found white thrombus. 







PC E 1 


illBP'v / alk. 




c W^ 




B' 



138 



POULTRY DISEASES 



thrombi. Fig 57 illustrates this condition. It may be seen 
that the blood vessels are quite distended by the blood fibrin. 

SPIROCHETOSIS 

This is a blood disease (septicemia) due to a spiral-like 
microscopic organism that is supposed to be carried from bird 

to bird by means of the chicken 
tick; illustrated in Fig. 34. 
Fig. 58 shows a drawing of the 
germ. It is the Spirocheta 
gallinarum; the slide from 
which this drawing was made 
was kindly sent to the author 
by Dr. Balfour of Khartoum, 
Sudan, Africa. It may affect 
the chicken, goose, lark and 
other birds. 

This disease was first recog- 
nized in Brazil; it is found in 
Africa and Europe. A disease 
occurs in the southern part of 
the United States, where the chicken tick is abundant, that 
presents symptoms similar to those of spirochetosis; so far 
a4 the author knows, no definite work has been done to deter- 
mine the true cause of it. 




Fig. 58. Spirocheta Gallinarum. 

This drawing, made from a blood 
smear, shows red blood cells (oval), 
thrombocytes and leukocytes (round) 
and spirochetes (corkscrew-like). 




Fig. 59. Acute Spirochetosis (after Balfour). 

Spirochetosis is most common among chickens, but also 
infects geese, ducks, pigeons and sparrows. 

Symptoms.- — Dullness, loss of appetite and rapid emaciation 



BLOOD DISEASES 139 

first ; the head and tail are down, and the bird stands around 
in corners or on the roost, with its eyes closed. Fig. 59 shows 
a photograph of a typical case. Note the attitude of head, 
tail and body. 

Another form of septicemia in chickens is caused by a com- 
ma-shaped germ- — the Spirillum Metchinikovi or Vibrio Met- 
chinikovi. 

The symptoms are similar to those of fowl cholera, except 
that there is no, or at most but slight, elevation of the tem- 
perature. Diarrhea is constantly present. Inflammation of 
the bowel and enlarged liver (hepatitis) is noted. The disease 
has not been reported in this country. It may exist unrecog- 
nized. 

PERICARDITIS 

This is an inflammation of the pericardium or heart sac ; 
there is usually a sero-fibrinous effusion about the heart, and it 
is often spoken of as dropsy of the heart sac or dropsy of 
the heart. It is, of course, not strictly a blood disease, but 
it is often associated with diseases of the blood and of the 
lungs, as a complication; further than this its cause is not 
known, but may result from exposure to cold and dampness. 
It may be a complication of fowl cholera, of acute tuberculous 
origin, or pneumo-pericarditis, the latter an extension of 
the inflammation from the lung structures to the pericardium. 

Symptoms. — A diagnosis of pericarditis cannot ordinarily 
be made during the life of the bird, but is easily demonstrated 
on autopsy. Among the symptoms are intense dyspnea, the 
beak being held open. Tumultuous heart action, extreme ex- 
haustion on exercise may exist. The bird may fall if forced to 
move and death may occur from syncope. There may be a 
degeneration of the heart muscle and possibly a rupture of 
the pericardium. 

Treatment. — Treatment is unsatisfactory; numerous cases 
occurring in the same flock should lead to the enforcement of 
better hygienic conditions, especially to better protection from 
cold and dampness. 

ENDOCARDITIS 

This is an inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart, 
usually affecting the valves also. Nothing is known of its 
cause, but it is of not infrequent occurrence during the course 
of certain diseases of the blood. It cannot be diagnosed dur- 
ing life, and therefore cannot be treated. Prom what we 
know of the cause of endocarditis in man and animals, we 
should expect exposure to cold and dampness to be a factor in 



140 POULTRY DISEASES 

the cause of this disease, and as such to be avoided. Verrucose 
pericarditis has been found. The nodules form in a line or in 
an irregular manner in the vicinity of the valves. These nod- 
ules may become so large that they interfere with the action 
of the valves and a regurgitation of the blood results. 

Chronic endocarditis is often found. In old birds calcifi- 
cation of the aortic walls has been observed. 

RUPTURE OF THE HEART AND LARGE BLOOD VESSELS 

Internal hemorrhage (bleeding) due to rupture of the heart 
or large blood vessels is common in overfed fowls. It may 
be caused by any excitement or overexertion in such birds. 
It is described in this section because affecting organs of cir- 
culation. 

Symptoms. — There is a sudden blanching of the comb and 
mucous membranes followed by great weakness, coma and 
death. No treatment is practicable. 

HYPERTROPHY OF THE HEART 

The causes of this condition have been thought to be ob- 
struction of the circulation due to tuberculous growths in the 
liv^er or mesentery and also a sequela of gout and rheumatic 
conditions. It is found in both fowls and cage birds. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptom is that of dysp- 
nea accompanied by a wheezing sound. 



SECTION VII 

CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 

Under this head we class ' ' going light ' ' and tuberculosis. 

Both cause considerable loss to the poultryman. There is 
much doubt as to whether the former should be classed as a 
disease; certainly this term as usually applied refers merely 
to a symptom of a disease (often tuberculosis or enteritis) or 
a condition in which there is a progressive loss in the weight 
of the bird. 

GOING LIGHT (ASTHENIA) 

Those who look upon going light as a specific disease con- 
sider it as one that affects chickens and pigeons. It may affect 
old or young birds. It is called going light because the bird 
becomes gradually lighter until emaciated. It is a disease that 
is found in all parts of the United States. A germ called the 
Bacterium asthene has been isolated by one investigator from 
the intestines of sick birds. It resembles the Bacillus coli 
communis always present in the intestinal tract of chickens. 

The affected birds have a good appetite ; in fact, at times a 
ravenous one. The loss of flesh is continuous for a few weeks, 
when the bird dies. 

In eleven cases of going light examined by the pathological 
laboratory of the United States Bureau of Animal Industry 
three were found to be infected by the Bacillus enteritidis. 
This germ is dangerous to man. It affects cattle and has re- 
sulted fatally to those persons eating infected meat. 

Postmortem Findings. — Usually on autopsy all organs ap- 
pear normal so far as gross appearance goes, but extreme 
emaciation as described above is noted. 

The following is the result of a blood study in these cases: 

Report of Cases of Asthenia 

Two outbreaks have been investigated by the author. One in a 
flock of Rhode Island Reds, in which flock there were about two 
hundred birds which should have weighed about two pounds each. 
The disease affected a gradually increasing number. The feed con- 
sisted of grain, insects picked up from the fields, and plenty of 
green grass. As it was irrigation time, the birds had access to 
the irrigating ditches. The henhouse and yard were kept clean. 
It was advised to change the run and continue giving a variety 
of good green feed and grain with a good supply of water. The 
disease finally disappeared from the flock. All efforts at the labora- 



142 POULTRY DISEASES 

tory to isolate any germ which might have been the cause of the 
disease were unsuccessful. 

The second flock was from eggs that had been produced by birds 
in which roup had appeared the preceding winter. Five birds 
about four months old were sent to the laboratory for study with 
the following history: The birds had good hygienic surroundings, 
were moved from place to place, given fresh water and good quality 
of feed, with plenty of green stuff, but without success; the birds 
not only did not thrive, but continued to lose flesh and finally died, 
notwithstanding that most of them had a ravenous appetite. 

Chick No. 3. — Hemoglobin, 65 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,920,000; 
leukocytes, 28,000. Differential count: polymorphonuclear neutro- 
philes, 39 per cent; eosinophiles, 30 per cent; lymphocytes, 29 per 
cent; mast cells, 2 per cent. 

Chick No. 4. — Hemoglobin, 65 per cent; erythrocytes, 2,600,000; 
leukocytes, 14,000. Differential count: eosinophiles, 31 per cent; 
mononuclears, 8 per cent; lymphocytes, 60 per cent; basophiles, 1 
per cent. 

Chick No. 5. — Hemoglobin, 75 per cent; leukocytes, 34,000; eryth- 
rocytes, 3,000,000. Differential count: polymorphonuclear neutro- 
philes, 4 per cent; eosinophiles, 50 per cent; basophiles, 3 per cent; 
mononuclears, 4 per cent; lymphocytes, 39 per cent. 

Chick No. 6. — This bird was about four months old, stunted in 
growth, "going light," and had contracted roup from another bird. 
The blood study shows the following: hemoglobin, 60 per cent; 
leukocytes, 16,000; erythrocytes, 3,600,000; thrombocytes, 436,000. 
Differential count: eosinophiles, 3 per cent; mononuclears, 4 per 
cent: lymphocytes, 89 per cent; mast cells, 4 per cent. 

All efforts to isolate germs from the liver, spleen, kidneys and 
heart-blood were unsuccessful. 

More study must be done on this disease to determine the true 
cause, before rational treatment can be outlined. 

Treatment. — Best results, in flocks of young birds, have been 
obtained by giving one tablespoonful of Epsom salts to each 
12 birds. Dissolve the Epsom salts in water and use this 
water to mix with bran or mash. Repeat twice weekly. See 
that the flock has plenty of shade and clean, pure water at all 
times. 

The birds should receive one-fourth to one grain ferrous 
sulphate once a dav in soft feed. The prognosis is not hope- 
ful. 

With our present knowledge we will look to sanitary sur- 
roundings for the control of this condition — clean coops and 
yards, good feed and water. A tablespoonful of powdered 
ginger to each dozen hens may be given with advantage once 
or twice a day in soft feed. 

In going light in addition to a cathartic of Epsom salt the 
following given once daily has yielded fair results: calcium 
carbonate 120 grains, magnesium sulphate 240 grains, sodium 
bicarbonate 360 grains, sodium chlorid 60 grains, sodium sul- 
phate 120 grains. This is one dose for 120 birds. 



CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 143 

TUBERCULOSIS 

Tli is is a disease of great importance to the poultryman, not 
only on account of its destructiveness to his flock, but also 
on account of its relation to the health of himself and family ; 
for while fowls are not very likely to contract tuberculosis 
from domestic animals or from man, yet fowls that have the 
disease are a serious menace to the other animals on the farm 
as well as to the poultryman and his family. 

Cause. — The Bacillus tuberculosis, which was discovered by 
Koch in 1882, is the cause of this disease. There are four prin- 
cipal types of this organism. The one most commonly in- 
fecting man is designated as the human type. The one pe- 
culiar to cattle is designated as the bovine type ; and the one 
peculiar to fowls the avian type ; and there is still another type 
of the tubercle bacillus which affects fish and other cold-blood- 
ed animals. 

While there are some differences in the shape of the organ- 
isms grown for a considerable time in the various animals and 
some differences (biochemically) when grown in artificial 
media after isolation, yet the type peculiar to any of the 
warm-blooded animals will grow in any of the other warm- 
blooded animals, that is, the types are interchangeable, which 
means that the bovine type may cause tuberculosis in man and 
the human type may cause tuberculosis in birds, etc. Most 
authors consider that while the chicken has considerable .re- 
sistance to the human type, it will and does become infected 
by this type. 

It has been found that a large percentage of hogs fed swill 
from houses where tuberculous persons have expectorated into 
it, become tuberculous, and when slaughtered, there is a con- 
siderable loss from condemnation of those badly affected. 
(Busman.) 

Tuberculosis among chickens is rare in some portions, and 
is very common in other localities in the United States. Al- 
though it is widespread throughout the United States and 
Canada, it was first reported in this country in 1900 and 
received but slight attention until 1903. It also occurs in tur- 
keys, pigeons and pheasants, and two cases in wild geese were 
reported at the Ontario Agricultural College. The loss from 
this disease seems to be increasing. 

VanEs and Schalk have produced tuberculosis experiment- 
ally in twelve sparrows by feeding them chopped tuberculous 
liver of a hen. 

Mode of Spread. — In the progress of tuberculosis of chick- 
ens at times there is noted a diarrhea. In these cases there 
are tuberculous ulcers of the mucous lining of the intestinal 



144 POULTRY DISEASES 

tract and the spread is very rapid through the flock, as birds 
are continually picking feed from the ground and floors where 
contamination is sure to have taken place. 

If scraps be fed to which tuberculous sputum has found 
its way or if the birds are allowed to devour parts of an ani- 
mal dead of the disease, there is a liability of their contracting 
tuberculosis. 

They may also contract the disease by the introduction of 
a tuberculous bird into a flock. Tuberculosis among wild birds 
has been mentioned as a possible fact. There is also danger 
of spread from eggs from a tuberculous hen where the eggs 
are purchased for hatching — prenatal infection. 

There is also a possibility that birds, by following tuber- 
culous cattle, may become infected, as do hogs. It has been 
argued that the temperature of the bird is so high (105° P. 
to 107° P.) that it furnishes an unfavorable field for the 
human and bovine types of germs, which thrive at tempera- 
tures close to 98° and 101° P., respectively. It has, however, 
been found that these germs soon adjust themselves to such 
changes in temperature and to a certain degree to differences 
in food. 

One case, a hen, was sent to the laboratory with the history of 
having had access to the sputum of a person afflicted with tubercu- 
losis. Upon autopsy small pearl-like nodules were found through- 
out the liver, in the lung substance and over the serous lining 
covering the intestines and abdominal cavity. A microscopic ex- 
amination of the lesions revealed the bacillus of tuberculosis. It 
more closely resembled the human than the avian type. 

Symptoms. — An absolute diagnosis cannot be made during 
life from the physical signs. The symptoms observable are 
common to many conditions, especially in the early stages 
when there are no positive external symptoms by which it 
may be recognized. The bird becomes emaciated. The ra- 
pidity of emaciation, like in other animals, depends on the 
progress of the disease ; that is, the susceptibility of the bird, 
as well as the degree of infection. 

The comb appears pale, the bird becomes dull and sleepy. 
If the joints become affected there will be lameness, in case 
the affection is in the legs, and swollen joints, and often in 
affection of the skin and visible mucous membrane there is 
ulceration (sores). This latter condition has been observed 
especially in parrots. These skin lesions are made up of a 
cheesy material (caseation necrosis), which is covered by a 
thick, rather hard crust, whitish in color. At times these 
crusts become rather horny in nature. 

The red blood cells in a tuberculous fowl may be greatly 
reduced (as low as 1,000,000), and the hemoglobin as low as 



CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 145 

thirty-five per cent. The white blood cells are slightly in- 
creased in numbers. 

Diagnosis. — Many investigators claim that birds will not 
react to subcutaneous injections of tuberculin or to tuberculin 
dropped into the eye of a tuberculous bird. VanEs and 
Schalk have shown that tuberculin (50 per cent) made from 
the avian type tubercle bacilli, injected rather superficially 
in the comb or wattles (intradermal method) will produce 
a swelling as in similar tests in mammals. Only about one 
drop is injected. In a test of 600 birds it was found that the 
intradermal test was accurate in 97.77 per cent. 

Post Mortem Findings. — Owing to the fact that most birds 
are infected with tuberculosis through contaminated food, 
we find most of the lesions in the abdominal organs. Of 
these the liver is the most often diseased. Next in frequency 
may be named the spleen, peritoneum or lining of the ab- 
dominal cavity, ovaries, gizzard, intestines, lungs, kidneys and 
bones. 

As indicated above, the areas may appear as pearly, grey- 
ish-white nodules varying in size from a pin-head to a pea, 
or even larger. In these larger nodules there will be noted 
a cheesy mass which, as the lesions become older, becomes 
impregnated with calcium (lime) and then cuts like gritty 
material. Lime deposits in tuberculous lesions of birds are not 
so abundant as in tuberculosis of mammalia. In healed 
tubercles there may be a solid calcareous (stony) mass. 
Usually the diseased organs are enlarged. 

Upon opening the intestines of a tuberculous bird there 
may be noted ulcers, usually small in size, and a thickening 
of the wall. The abdominal lymph glands are tuberculous. 
At times these show small tubercles from the size of a pin- 
head to larger, at other times a cheesy mass (caseation ne- 
crosis), and in still older areas an infiltration with lime salts. 
Small tubercles may also be found in the lungs and other 
adjacent tissue. 

Like in the higher animals, the bones become tuberculous, 
there is noted swelling, tubercles and caseation ; later calcifi- 
cation. 1' f | 

Treatment. — Treatment of the affected bird is not to be 
thought of. As shown above, the germs of the disease are 
so often spread through the droppings that the only sure 
means of eradicating the disease from a flock is to kill all the 
birds in the flock and if possible move the henhouse to a new 
location and have new runs. If this is not practicable, thor- 
oughly disinfect with five per cent carbolic acid or five per 



146 POULTRY DISEASES 

cent creolin, all fences, feed troughs, watering tanks and 
buildings, as indicated under cholera. 

The tubercle bacillus is resistant to external influence. A 
contaminated poultry yard may remain infected for a long 
time, many months and possibly years. The action of disin- 
fectants on the tubercle bacillus is slow. Direct sunlight on 
the surface of infected material kills the bacillus in a few 
hours. 

Birds from an infected flock should not be sold for breed- 
ing purposes, and the birds from such a flock that are killed 
for food should be inspected by a competent veterinarian, so 
that none may be used for food purposes that are diseased 
to such an extent as to render the food unfit for use. 

All birds in a flock infected with tuberculosis that die 
should be cremated to prevent further spread of the disease 
from that source. All droppings and cleanings from the hen- 
house and runs should be disinfected with calcium chlorid, a 
five per cent solution of carbolic acid or other reliable disin- 
fectant before spreading on the fields. 

Inoculations of Birds by Mammalian Strains 

Auclair has found that pigeons injected intraperitoneally with 
pure cultures of human tubercle bacilli, died after one to three 
and one-half months, without showing any signs of tuberculosis. 
In a second series, pigeons were infected in a similar manner with 
tubercle bacilli from a similar source. At the sixth, seventh and 
fourteenth days afterward, the pigeons were killed and the livers, 
lungs and blood injected into guinea pigs. A few of the pigs died 
without any evidence of tuberculosis. Only two died of local tuber- 
culosis. 

From this Auclair concludes: first, that pigeons infected with 
human tubercle bacilli die without any observable tuberculous 
changes; second, that tubercle bacilli may retain their vitality and 
virulence in the body of the pigeon, for at least fourteen days; 
third, that the tubercle bacilli localize themselves in the pigeon 
by preference in the liver and in the lungs, but not, so far as 
could be shown, in the blood; and fourth, that the tubercle bacilli 
passed through the pigeon give rise to a slowly developing tuber- 
culosis. 

Van Es and Schalk after experimenting with many chickens 
come to the following conclusions: 

A considerable number of birds into which mammalian tubercle 
bacilli are introduced, either by ingestion or by inoculation, die in 
an extremely emaciated state. 

As a result of the incorporation of such bacilli into the bodies 
of birds, the latter may retain the organisms for long periods with 
their pathogenic characteristics fully preserved. 

In consequence it is well within the range of possibility that 
biros may serve as intermediary carriers and transmitters of mam- 
malian tuberculosis. 



CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASES 147 

PSEUDO-TUBERCULOSIS 

The symptoms are similar to those of true tuberculosis. 

Upon autopsy the lungs may be noted to be thoroughly 
studded with nodules varying in size up to that of a pea. 
The nodules are firm to the touch and when sectioned are 
found to be dense and appear homogeneous. 

The lesions may be mistaken for tuberculosis, parasitic cysts, 
nodular taeniasis, aspergillosis or coccidiosis. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS 

Furlan reports, that in four geese three months of age 
there was found a fibrinous exudate over the pericardium and 
peritoneum. Microscopic examination of scrapings from these 
lesions showed colonies resembling those of actinomycosis. 

DISEASE OF THE SUBCUTEM 

There is found, at times, peculiar disc-shaped yellowish or 
yellowish-grey bodies in the loose connective tissue that at- 
taches the skin to the underlying structures. These bodies 
are only one or two millimeters in diameter and upon being 
sectioned and studied under the microscope show by their 
microchemical action that they contain calcium salts. This 
condition is found in birds of any breed and in any condi- 
tion, but is most common in birds rather thin in flesh. There 
is no evidence of it being an acute reaction of the tissues and 
is apparently of no constitutional significance. All efforts to 
isolate an organism or to reproduce the condition have been 
negative. There is a possibility that it may be a calcification 
of a parasitic invasion. 



SECTION VIII 

DISEASES OF THE LIVER 

Inflammation and necrosis of the liver as seen in many of 
the infectious diseases have already been referred to under 
the discussions of these different diseases, as chicken cholera, 
blackhead, tuberculosis, etc. Aside from diseases of the liver 
due to infection, the commonest cause of ailments of this ir- 
gan is improper feeding. It is with great difficulty that dis- 
eases of the liver can be recognized except upon postmortem 
examination. Treatment, as a rule, is useless. 

FATTY DEGENERATION 

There is a disease process in the protoplasm of the liver 
cells, by which the normal secreting cells of the liver are to 
a greater or less extent replaced by fat cells. The liver is 
smaller than normal, unless fatty infiltration is also present; 
it appears slightly yellowish, and when cut through with a 
knife, the blade of the instrument will have a greasy appear- 
ance, due to the fat that adheres to it. 

Symptoms. — Birds affected with fatty degeneration of the' 
liver show varied symptoms, but ordinarily they are dull, eat 
little and the comb turns dark to black. They gradually be- 
come thin in flesh and finally die. Usually the bird will live 
from two or three weeks to three months after the symptoms 
first appear. On autopsy all organs as a rule appear normal 
except the liver. 

Treatment. — There is very little that can be done for this 
condition. Podophyllin in one-grain doses every three days 
may be given with some hope of relief. 

FATTY INFILTRATION 

This condition may be a physiological or normal process 
until the accumulation of fat occurs in such quantities as to 
interfere with the function of the liver cells. 

The liver is one of the so-called storehouses of the body for 
fat. In it is stored a surplus until needed by the body for 
use (for combustion for the production of heat and energy) 

Overfed hens, or those closely housed and not forced to 
work, or fed too heavily on carbohydrates (starchy feeds) 
store up much of the surplus nutrition in the liver as well 



150 POULTRY DISEASES 

as in other portions of the abdomen, especially in the mesen- 
tery and in the abdominal walls. 

In these cases, on autopsy, the liver will be found to be 
enlarged, brownish or greyish -brown in color (mottled), fri- 
able (tears easily), and when cut through appears "greasy," 
much fat adhering to the knife blade. In these cases rupture 
of the liver often occurs when the hen is stepped upon by a 
large animal, is thrown or jumps a long distance on hard 
ground or a concrete floor. Heavy hens with clipped wings 
are prone to this injury. 

In the liver, in which excessive fat is stored up, there is, 
after a while, an encroachment upon the protoplasm to such 
an extent that the cells cannot properly functionate and 
then death of the bird may occur. In these cases a micro- 
scopic examination shows the nuclei of the cells to be pushed 
to one side, and the protoplasm atrophied and disappearing. 
This is a pathological condition. 

RUPTURE OF THE LIVER 

In cases where the liver is excessively congested with blood 
or is overly filled with fat, as mentioned above, violence may 
result in rupture. 

One case that may be of interest came to the laboratory, and at 
autopsy was found to be ruptured, with considerable blood (hemor- 
rhage) in the abdominal cavity (among the intestines). The rup- 
ture or tear was about three-quarters of an inch long and on the 
left lobe. The organ was double its normal size. Upon microscopic 
examination it was found to be congested and occasional small rup- 
tures (hemorrhages) were found throughout the liver substance. 

This bird was in a yard with a horse and it is supposed to have 
been kicked or stepped upon, as the left side was bruised. 

CONGESTION OF THE LIVER 

There are two kinds of congestion of the liver, active and 
passive. Active congestion precedes inflammation and is a 
state in which the capillaries, arterioles and arteries are en- 
gorged with blood. It is caused by local irritation. 

Passive congestion of the liver is usually due to a weak 
heart or a leaky valve between the two cavities of the right 
side. The blood backs up into the liver, and the central 
veins of the lobules and capillaries, between the columns of 
liver cells, become engorged. It gives the cut surface a pecu- 
liar yellowish mottled appearance called "nutmeg liver," 
from a fancied resemblance that it bears to the sectional sur- 
face of a nutmeg. 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER 151 

INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER 

Inflammation of the liver may be the result of absorption 
of poisonous products from the intestines. These products 
(toxins) lodge in the liver, or the inflammation may be due 
to infection (germs) as in chicken cholera. The irritation 
causes active congestion followed by a migration of great 
numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (white blood cells) 
and thrombocytes, constituting inflammation. The liver is 
enlarged, dark, and easily torn ; it appears very full of blood. 

In many, and in fact most, of the contagious diseases in- 
flammation of the liver (hepatitis) occurs. 

The following case report will serve to illustrate these cases: 

A valuable rooster was sent to the small animal ward of the 
division of veterinary medicine of the Colorado Agricultural College 
for treatment. The bird had been sprinkled with some proprietary 
lice killer and had immediately taken ill. There was a loss of 
appetite and it had become weak in the legs and remained so till 
its death. Late in the course of the trouble the bird was not able 
to stand at all, but lay on its side. It became emaciated and lived 
only about three weeks after it was taken sick. 

On autopsy the liver was found to be enormously enlarged, weigh- 
ing 176 grams (normal weight would have been about forty grams 
for a bird of that size). The surface had a grayish mottled appear- 
ance. Upon microscopic examination these pale gray, irregular 
areas proved to be liver areas packed with leukocytes (white blood 
cells) and thrombocytes — an aggravated case of hepatitis (inflam- 
mation of the liver). 

Another similar case was brought to the laboratory, except that 
it did not have the history of having been sprinkled with an insect 
powder. 

INFLAMMATION OF THE BILE DUCTS 

Angiocholitis and cholecystitis are occasionally met with in 
the livers of birds. A post mortem examination of the gall 
bladder shows its contents to be rather mucilaginous and con- 
taining only a small amount of the biliary elements. 

ENTEROHEPATITIS 

This is a disease of turkeys and to a less extent of other 
birds, which extends from the intestine and involves the liver. 
It is discussed under diseases of the digestive tract. (See 
page 111.) 

UNIMPORTANT DISEASES 

Abscesses and tumors of the liver appear to be very rare 
in chickens and other fowl. Sarcomas and carcinomas (can- 
cers) of this organ are usually associated with similar tumors 
of the ovary. 



152 POULTRY DISEASES 

Jaundice is very rare, and appears to result from a long- 
continued mild congestion of the liver. 

Cercomoniasis (spotted liver) is a type of disease of the 
liver due to infection (Monocercomonas gallinarum) that may 
be associated with severe diarrheas. 

Aspergillosis is a disease due to a fungus (Aspergillus 
fumigatus, and sometimes other species). It commonly af- 
fects the lungs (pneumomycosis, which see), but may, and 
occasionally does, affect the liver. 

Amyloid degeneration of the liver, spleen and kidneys has 
been noted in birds afflicted with tuberculosis. In some cases 
the liver appears granular and brittle. Amyloid deposits in 
these organs have also been observed in this laboratory in 
hens dying of purulent peritonitis. 



SECTION IX 

DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT 

PROLAPSE OR EVERSION OF THE OVIDUCT 

This is a common ailment of laying hens. Stimulating 
feeding and aggravated constipation have been found asso- 
ciated with this condition. When the eggs are large and 
considerable straining takes place during their passage, and 
in inflammation of the mucous lining of the oviduct or egg 
canal, prolapse or a protruding of the mucous membrane 
through the cloaca may be observed. In constipation, the bow- 
els becoming gorged, and this in addition to the obstruction 
when the egg canal contains one or more developing eggs, and 
the ovary, being active, is larger and adds to the bulk, pre- 
disposes to prolapse. 

This condition is most often seen in hens that are hea^y 
layers. It perhaps occurs most often in old hens. If the 
prolapsed or protruding mucous membrane is allowed to ex- 
tend through the anus, it soon becomes inflamed from ex- 
posure to the air and infection. Later the parts may become 
ulcerated as a result of mechanical injuries or the attack of 
germs. 

Treatment. — Wash off the accumulated material on the vent 
feathers with clean, soapy, warm water. After cleansing the 
hands, replace the protruding mass, using on the fingers car- 
bolized vaselin, three to five per cent strength. Keep the 
hens on a light diet for several days so that the parts may 
have a rest and the irritation causing the trouble subside. It 
is best to give only soft feed and liqujds. Give the hen a 
tablespoonful of olive oil and plenty of clean water. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE OVIDUCT (Egg Bound) 

This is a common ailment of laying hens, perhaps the 
commonest of all discussed conditions of the oviduct. The 
poultry raiser calls it ' ' egg bound, ' ' by which he means there 
is something in the oviduct which the bird cannot force out. 

The upper portion of the oviduct, or that part which re- 
ceives the ovum (yolk) as soon as it is fully formed in the 
ovary and delivered, is lined with secreting cells. In this 
part the albumin which surrounds the yolk is formed. Further 
along the glands secrete the shell or calcium layer after form- 



154 POULTRY DISEASES 



ing around the mass a fibrous membrane or sac. It can be 
readily seen, for all this to be brought about, there must be 
an abundant blood supply. An inflammation of the egg duct 
(usually the result of infection from the digestive tract by 
way of the cloaca) means an arrest of function of these glands. 
There are other cells that secrete mucus which lubricates the 
passage way, and these, too, are arrested in their function. 
The result is a stoppage of the egg. 

Other causes are : eggs of too large size, exhaustion of the 
bird and atony and paralysis of muscular walls of the oviduct 
and vagina, volvulus or twisting and stricture of the oviduct- 
Weakened muscles, the result of disease, improper nourish- 
ment and overwork are contributing factors. 

Symptoms. — The hen goes frequently to the nest and re- 
peatedly makes expulsive efforts but cannot lay. If the 
obstruction is well along in the egg canal the egg may be 
felt as a hard object in the posterior part of the abdomen. In 
many cases the obstruction is so far up the oviduct it cannot 
be felt or seen and we must depend for diagnosis upon the 
action of the bird, which suffers acutely under these' conditions. 

Treatment. — First be sure that the bird will not lay the 
egg unaided. Allow her to remain quiet and alone for a 
couple of hours ; she will often relieve herself unaided If 
it is evident that the bird must be given help, wash the hand 
carefully with soap and water and lubricate the fingers with 
three to five per cent carbolized vaselin, which can be se- 
cured at any drug store, pass the fingers through the anus 
and cloaca into the egg canal and remove the egg. At times 
the egg is large and it may be necessary to break the shell 
in order to remove it. If the egg is broken, make sure that 
all parts of the shell are removed. By referring to Fig. 2 
the relations of these organs may be seen. 

After the removal of the egg give the hen a tablespoon of 
olive or castor oil and place on a light feed for a few days. 
Recovery usually occurs in the simple uncomplicated cases 
which form the majority; in complicated cases death is often 
the result. 

RUPTURE OF THE OVIDUCT 

This is usually a complication of obstruction of the oviduct. 
It is frequently fatal in a very short time and in such cases 
can be diagnosed only upon postmortem examination. 

Cause. — Vigorous contraction of the muscular walls of the 
egg canal in expulsion efforts sometimes results in a rupture of 
the wall. When this occurs the usual sequel is peritonitis 
(inflammation of the serous lining of the abdominal cavity) 



DISEASES OF THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT 155 

and the death of the bird. Disease processes sometime? so 
weaken the wall that it gives way under the stress of natural 
contraction. 

Symptoms. — The hen ceases to lay, the abdomen becomes 
larger and often one or more eggs can be felt by palpating 
the lower portion of the abdomen. Often the hen is noted to 
sit up penguin-like-fashion, walking with tail and posterior 
portion of the abdomen dragging the ground. There is 
nothing to do except to kill the bird. At autopsy there will 
be found many yolks in the abdominal cavity, possibly one 
or more with shells and possibly an inflammation of the lining 
of the cavity (peritoneum). 

BROKEN EGGS IN OVIDUCT 

Eggs in the oviduct, as well as ova still undelivered, are 
often found broken as a result of a kick of a large animal or 
of the hen being stepped upon. Death usually follows, if not 
immediately from the injury, which breaks the egg, after sev- 
eral days as a result of complicated obstruction of the oviduct 
resulting from the fibrous exudate thrown out about the broken 
yolk. 

We have also studied cases of ruptured ova due to heavy 
hens roosting on high roosts and by jumping upon the hard 
floor, causing rupture of the larger forming yolks or ova or 
of eggs in the egg canal. 

PROLAPSE OF THE CLOACA 

This may occur in heavy laying hens that roost on high 
perches and fly a long distance to the ground, and especially 
when the wings are clipped. If these birds are allowed low 
roosts and put on a limited diet they recover. Some of these 
conditions have been studied in the author's laboratory and 
the trouble overcome by observing this rule. 

ABNORMAL EGGS 

Many different kinds of abnormal eggs are produced by fowls 
owing to various diseased or other abnormal conditions of the 
generative apparatus. Because of the rarity of their occurrence such 
eggs are of little importance to the practical poultry raiser, but 
thev possess much interest for the scientific, investigator. 

Softs?) ell Eggs. — This is a condition where eggs are laid without 
a sufficient amount of shell substance covering the shell membrane. 
The commonest cause is overfeeding, another cause is the lack of 
sufficient shell-making material in the feed; still another cause is 
frisrht, which may cause a premature detachment of the yolk. 

The cause should be remedied and the condition will disappear 
without further treatment. 

Yolkless Eggs. — These are small eggs, in which the albumen and 



156 POULTRY DISEASES 

shell are formed about a small portion of detached yolk, a minute 
piece of hardened albumen or a bit of coagulated blood instead of 
the normal yolk. 

Double and Triple Yolk Eggs. — These eggs with two yolks are 
common. They are caused by two yolks getting into the oviduct and 
being enclosed together in the albumen and shell. Three-yolked eggs, 
which are rare, have a similar origin. 

Bloodspecks, Blood Rings, Egg Inclusions. — These have little sig- 
nificance; particles of coagulated blood, due to hemorrhage when the 
ovum (yolk) is discharged from the ovary, are most common, but 
lumps of bacteria, worms, fecal matter, etc., have been found. 

Blood clots may be found in either the yolk or white (albumen). 

If hemorrhage occurs in the yolk, the clot has formed in the 
ovary before it was delivered into the oviduct. If the clot is in 
the white it has occurred in the upper portion of the oviduct. 

Dwarf Eggs 

Dwarf eggs of fowls vary greatly in size and shape. There are 
two distinct types; first, the prolate spheroidal shape, similar to 
a normal egg; and second, the cylindrical type. 

The internal structure of the dwarf egg varies in its makeup. 
Some dwarf eggs contain a small yolk surrounded by a membrane, 
others a small quantity of yolk without a yolk membrane, and 
still others no yolk. When yolks are present usually there is no 
germinal disc. 

The albumen in the dwarf eggs differs in its density. It may be 
dense and appearing like that of a normal egg. There is also found 
all gradations between these two extremes. The tendency is to a 
density greater than normal. 

The size of the egg is apparently related to the size of the 
nucleus which by its presence gives stimulus to albumen secretion. 

A bird may suffer a disturbance in her physiological functions 
of reproduction, and produce dwarf eggs since normal eggs are 
produced both before and after dwarf egg formation and the cause 
of sucb dwarf egg production is of a temporary character. Dwarf 
egg production appears in both pullets and old hens and occurrs 
at a rate of five to eight per 10,000 eggs produced. It may occur 
at any time during the laying period, but most often in the spring 
or early summer. 

The yolk of an egg constitutes, on an average, 24.37 per cent of 
the weight of the egg, and 33.91 per cent of double-yolked eggs and 
35.52 per cent of triple-yolked eggs. 

The shape of the eggs is determined by the action of the circular 
and longitudinal muscular fibers of the oviduct wall. 

The egg being a semifluid body has a tendency when free, to 
assume a globular shape, but at the time of the formation of the 
membrane it is larger than the oviduct lumen, hence there is a 
tendency under pressure exerted by the oviduct wall to elongate 
the mass in the direction of the long axis of the oviduct as this 
is the line of least resistance. 

The degree of pressure will depend upon the size of the egg and 
the tonicity of the muscular coats of the oviduct. 

The exact length as compared to the breadth will depend upon 
the tonus of the circular and longitudinal muscular fibers. A strong 
tonus of the circular fibers and weak longitudinal fibers may 
greatly alter the normal shape of the egg. The two sets of muscles 
are independent in their action. 



DISEASES OP THE OVARY AND OVIDUCT 157 

EPIZOOTIC ABORTION IN BIRDS 

Under this head, there have been mentioned by several writers, 
an affection in birds in which the eggs were expelled from the 
oviduct before the formation of the shell had taken place. We 
have noted this in flocks when crushed oyster shells were kept 
constantly before the birds. The question arises, is there any con- 
nection in the train of causes in the bird and mammals? 

INFLAMMATION OF THE OIL GLAND 

In the fowl there are no oil glands nor sweat glands found 
in connection with the feathers. This is compensated for by 
an oil gland located in the posterior dorsal region of the 
abdomen and at the base of the tail. The bird obtains the 
oil with its beak and stripping each feather separately oils 
them. 

Inflammation of this gland has been noted. The region 
of the gland becomes swollen, red, and painful to the touch. 
Microscopic examination shows a true acute inflammation. 
The ducts are occluded and the bird suffers considerable 
pain. Hot applications are indicated. 



SECTION X 



TUMORS 

Tumors of various kinds affect birds, but are less common 
than in higher animal life. There is almost no literature on 
the subject. The following reports from the author's labora- 




Fig. 60. Hematoma of Ovary in a Hen (natural size). 
A, diseased ova; B, sectioned surface of two of the blood tumors. 

tory are given for their interest, rather than their utilitarian 

value. 

Occurrence of Tumors. — Some definite data as to the occurrence 
of tumors is given by the Maine Experiment station in the Journal 
of Agricultural Research. 



160 POULTRY DISEASES 

It was found that of 880 birds autopsied at that station 79, or 8.96 
per cent, had tumors; that is, there were 90 cases of tumors per 
1,000 birds. 

There was no significant difference in frequency of occurrence of 
tumors between birds that died from natural causes and apparently 
normal birds that were killed. 

There is a significant correlation between age and the occurrence 
of tumors. Only 7.37 per cent of the birds under two and one-half 
years of age had tumors, while neoplasms were present in 19.17 
per cent of those that were over that age. 

In birds with tumors which died from natural causes, the tumors 
were the probable cause of death in from one-third to one-half of 
the cases. 

There was a tendency to the association of hypertrophied liver, 
spleen or kidney with the presence of tumors in other organs. 

Death often resulted from internal hemorrhage from the tumors, 
the underlying tissue, or the hypertrophied liver or spleen. 

The tumors can be classified into cystic and tissue tumors; 22.78 
per cent of the tumors were cystic and 74.68 per cent were of solid 
tissue structure. There were two cases of tissue tumors to which 
cysts were attached. 

In the females the organs most frequently affected were the genital 
organs; 37.76 per cent of all tumors being in the ovary and 18.36 
per cent in the oviduct and oviduct ligament. 

In most cases the tumors were confined to one organ. In fifteen 
cases, however, the tumor had evidently undergone metastasis, since 
tumors of similar nature occurred in from two to four organs. 

HEMATOMA, BLOOD TUMORS 

Occasionally considerable hemorrhage takes place in the 
ova as they are in process of formation. These fail to find 
their way into the oviduct and become hematomata, or blood 
tumors. Fig. 60 illustrates one of these cases, natural size. 
The sectioned surfaces of two of the tumors is shown. 

Exciting causes, like those that cause inflammation and 
congestion, are present. A rupture of a small, congested 
vessel causes the clot. Ergot in small quantities should be 
given to combat the condition. 

MULTIPLE TUMORS OF THE OVARY 

One of the commonest of tumors consists of yolks, or ova, 
which have formed, but failed to enter the oviduct. Later 
these masses become hard and irregular in shape, yellowish 
in color, consisting of dried (inspissated) yolks forming con- 
centric layers. Ovarian infection by the Bacterium pullorum 
is a common cause of this condition. Fig. 61 illustrates one 
of these cases, natural size. 

CYSTIC OVARY 

Cystomata, or cysts, are found at times in the ovaries. These 
cysts are apparently imperfectly developed ova varying in 



TUMORS 



161 



size, and contain a colorless liquid. They are attached to the 
ovarian mass by pedicles. 




Fig. 61. Multiple Tumors of Ovary of a Hen (natural size). 
A, ova that have undergone degeneration. Note the pedicle-like 
structure joining to the ovarian mass. 

A CASEOUS ABDOMINAL TUMOR 

A single comb Rhode Island Red hen, two years old, was kept 
on one of the test farms for breeding purposes, that is, as a part 



162 



POULTRY DISEASES 



of the farm flock. She was apparently in good health so far as 
indicated by actions and general appearance. 

Upon palpation of the abdominal cavity there was noted a tumor- 
like mass, freely movable and located in the left posterior quadrant. 
The mass was apparently about the size of an average sized hen 
egg. A diagnosis of tumor was made and it was decided to operate. 
The bird was brought from the pen in which she had been kept, 
receiving the usual care. After an anesthetic (chloroform) was ad- 
ministered the feathers were plucked from over the region of the 
tumor and the seat of operation was sterilized with fifty per cent 
alcohol. 

An incision about three inches long was made over the region 

of the tumor. After 
making the incision 
through the skin and 
controlling the cuti- 
cular hemorrhage, a 
mass of retroperito- 
neal fat about three- 
fifths inch thick was 
encountered. Incising 
this fat caused very 
little hemorrhage and 
in fact lipectomy was 
resorted to in order 
to remove the ob- 
structing mass. A 
tumor 7 cm. long and 
5 cm. in diameter 
was easily dissected 
out of the mass. The 
tumor apparently had 
its origin from the 
superior ligament of 
the oviduct. 

The tumor was 
hardened in a ten 
per cent solution for- 
maldehyd and an in- 
cision was made through the center when it was found that the 
tumor was cyst-like, containing a ' semi-solid or putty-like, finely 
granular, yellow material. The mass was surrounded by a rather 
thick, fibrous capsule. 




Fig. 62. A Hen With an Abdominal Cyst. 
The upright attitude is a diagnostic symptom of an 
abdominal tumor or ruptured oviduct. 



AN ABDOMINAL CYST 



This bird was 



A one-year old rose comb Rhode Island Red hen. 
from the same flock as the preceding bird. 

The hen assumed an upright position as shown in Fig. 62, other- 
wise appeared in good condition. 

Choloroform anesthesia was administered. The feathers were 
plucked from over the posterior abdominal region and the skin 
sterilized with a fifty per cent solution of alcohol. An incision 
three inches in length was made through the skin and aponeurosis 
of the abdominal muscles. The layer of retroperitoneal fat was 
very thin. A cyst about four inches in diameter was encountered. 



TUMORS 



168 



The cyst wall was made up of white, fibrous connective tissue The 
wall was thin. The cyst contained a colorless liquid which escaped 
from the punctured cyst wall. The cyst was attached by means 
of a pedicle to the roof of the lumbo-pelvic cavity about midway 
of the kidneys. The cyst apparently had its origin from the su- 
perior ligament of the oviduct. The oviduct contained in its pos- 
terior portion a fully developed egg with shell. 

CONTAGIOUS EPITHELIOMA 

Cause. — This is a specific infectious disease. It is trans- 
mitted from one bird to another in the infected flock. It is 
quite widely distributed, being reported in Europe and other 




Fig. 63. Photograph of the Heads of Two Chicks Affected With Contagious 

Epithelioma. 



countries and has been observed in many sections of the 
United States. 

Symptoms. — The disease appears first as a catarrhal in- 
flammation of the mucous membranes of the head followed 
by the development of epithelioma tous enlargements which 
may involve any part of the head, especially the unfeathcred 
portions. These epithelial growths at first appear small, have 
a smooth surface and a hyperemia zone ; later they may de- 
velop to the size of a hazelnut or larger. Necrosis may take 
place in various portions of the new growth ; the sloughing 
may leave ulcerative surfaces which may cicatrize. The 
lesion may obstruct the sight and even obliterate the eye. 
The nasal lesions may interfere with respiration and cause 
the bird to hold its mouth partly open. 

A microscopic examination shows the structure to be that 
of an epithelioma. The cells are arranged in more or less 
irregular rows supported by a network of connective tissue 



164 POULTRY DISEASES 

which is arranged in bundles between the nests. The cells 
are of the epithelioma type. There may be observed necros- 
ing foci. 

Birds having contagious epithelioma always die, while those 
with chicken pox show a very large percentage of recoveries. 
The two diseases are easily distinguishable. 

SARCOMA 

Sarcomata are a type of malignant tumors; that is, they 
spread in much the same manner as cancers (carcinoma). 
They are fatal in time. The flesh of birds affected with sar- 
coma should not be eaten. 

A case of sarcoma was studied by the writer, in which the 
tumors involved the ovary, intestines, peritoneum (lining of 
the abdominal cavity) and the liver. These tumors vary in 
size, are whitish-yellow, and soft when sectioned. The study 
under the microscope showed it to be a spindle celled sarcoma. 

Rous has reproduced spindle celled sarcoma by transplant- 
ing portions of a sarcoma obtained from a Brown Leghorn 
hen, into the breast of both Barred Plymouth Rocks and Leg- 
horns. He obtained better growths from the inoculations 
into the Plymouth Rocks. 

The filtrate also produced sarcoma but the tumors did not 
appear until several months had elapsed after the inoculation 
of the filtrate. 

Round-celled sarcomata are often found in the fowl. We 
have succeeded in transplanting a round-celled sarcoma from 
a Single Comb White Leghorn hen into a Partridge Plymouth 
Rock Cockerel. 

TERATOMA 

An interesting case of teratoma in a black Wyandotte cock about 
twenty-one months old is described by Mr. Sheathes in the Journal 
of Comparative Pathology. (Vol. XXIV, part 2). 

The tumor was found in the abdominal cavity and involved the 
mesentery. The left testicle was absent. The growth measured 
3x4x6 inches and was enclosed by a thin, fibrinous membrane. The 
tumor mass consisted of a multitude of cysts ranging up to the 
size of a pea, islands of cartilage, cavities lined with stratified 
epithelium and minute feathers. The conclusion was drawn that 
this tumor probably originated from the left testicle. 

ADENOMA 

An adenoma is a tumor that has some resemblance to a 
normal gland. It is made up of connective tissue and asini, 
or cavities, lined by columnar or cuboidal cells. One tumor 
of this type affecting the spleen of a hen was sent to the 
laboratory. The spleen was about twice normal size. 



TUMORS 165 

EPITHELIOMA 

This is a type of cancer. A case was brought to the labora- 
tory with the history that it had a "growth" on the side of 
the head for several months. The tumor was flat and about 
one inch in diameter. A microscopic examination revealed it 
to be an epithelioma. 

OSTEOMA 

Osteoma is a term applied to a tumor that consists of case- 
ous tissue. This kind of tumor usually arises from the bones 
of the skeleton but may develop in parts away from the nor- 
mal bony structure. 

Osteomata usually occur singly in the body, that is, they 
are localized. If the new bony growth arises in connection 
with the skeleton it may be designated according to its loca- 
tions and relations. 

If the new bony growth is small and circumscribed and 
attached to the old bone it is called an osteophyte. If it be 
larger and more tumor-like it is called an exostosis. If the 
newly circumscribed bony growth is located within the bone 
cavity it is called an enostosis. 

New bony growths not attached to the skeleton may be 
classified as follows : those which have their seat in the peri- 
osteum but are separated from the bone are called movable 
periosteal exostoses ; those lying near the bone are called 
periosteal osteomata; those located some distance from the 
bone, in muscle and tendon and disconnected, osteomata; and 
those situated in other organs, as the lungs, mucous mem- 
brane of the trachea, the skin or abdominal walls, are hetero- 
plastic. 

Osteomata may occur either single or multiple. Frequently 
there are found multiple, circumscribed bony growths in great 
numbers on the bones of the extremities and trunk. The 
favorite seat of these new bony growths appears to be on the 
epiphyseal ends of the bones and the point of insertion of 
tendons, or both may be involved in the same individual and 
at the same time. Zeigler says it is probable that such growths 
are to be referred to as inherited predisposition of the part 
affected to overgrowth, or to a disturbance in the development 
of the skeleton. The bony plates and spicules, which in rare 
cases develop in the lungs or in the mucous membrane of the 
air passages, may occur in large numbers. 

The development of the bone takes place partly through 
the formation of osteoblasts, and partly through metaplasia 
of formed tissues. The matrix is formed chiefly from the 



166 POULTRY DISEASES 

connective tissue of the periosteum, as well as that of the tissue 
from which the osteoma arises; and also from that of the 
perichondrium and endosteum. If an exostosis develops in 
such a manner that cartilage is first formed from the prolifer- 
ating periosteum or bone marrow, and from that cartilage, 
bone is later developed, it is called a cartilaginous exostosis; 
when the exostosis is formed directly from the proliferating 
periosteum without an intermediate stage of cartilage, it is 
known as a connective tissue exostosis. 

If the connective tissue in a bony tumor is abundant, and 
in fact a predominating substance, it is called an osteofibroma. 
This form of tumor appears quite commonly among bony 
tumors. 

An abundant production of bone in a chondroma leads to 
the formation of an osteochondroma. These latter are usually 
found in the long bones. 

A condition in which the muscles become bony in nature 
is called myositis ossificans. The tendons of birds and es- 
pecially those of the leg often become ossified, especially in 
old birds. This is also the case in some of the vertebral liga- 
ments. 

One case of generalized osteoma has been studied in a fowl. 

HORNY GROWTHS ON THE CUTICULAR SURFACE OF 

FOWLS 

Horny growths are reported as occurring on the cuticular 
surfaces of fowls, by Gadow. Horny growths have been ob- 
served on the cuticular surfaces and on different parts of the 
body of cattle and other animals. 

A case which we have observed is of importance on account 
of its immense size as compared to the size of bird upon which 
it was found. 

Dr. Leonard of Asheville sent to this laboratory a specimen with 
the case history that it was excised from the thigh region of a 
two-year-old hen. No further history could be obtained. The spec- 
imen measured 14 centimeters long and 7.5 centimeters in diameter 
at the base. The outer structure is horn-like, resembling the horny 
structure of the spur or claw. There will be noted that here and 
there a feather has developed. The inner core consists of con- 
nective tissue and some adipose tissue and is soft in consistency. 

PAPILLOMA— WARTS 

True papillomata have been observed in the fowl. They 
occur on the cuticular surface and consist of a connective 
tissue core covered by stratified epithelia. 



SECTION XI 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 

In the fall, winter and spring, these diseases are a scourge 
to the poultry raiser, unless strict sanitation is observed. 

OBSTRUCTION OF THE TRACHEA 

This is uncommon, except as a result of gapeworm infes- 
tation. Fig. 64 illustrates a case that was sent to the labora- 
tory with the statement that it had ' ' gapes. ' ' This bird would 
extend its head high into the air, gasping for breath as one 
whose trachea is obstructed 
by gape worms ; it was weak 
and unable to stand square- 
ly upon its feet. It was 
destroyed for examination. 
A piece of a grain of corn 
was found in the trachea, 
surrounded by an accumu- 
lation of mucus due to the 
irritation its presence in 
the trachea had caused. 
The foreign body and the 
accumulated mucus were 
obstructing the passage of 
air to the lungs ; hence, the 
asphyxiation. In some 

cases a whole grain of corn has been found lodged in the 
trachea of an adult fowl. 

CATARRH, COLDS 

Cause. — Sudden changes in the weather, cold, damp weather 
roosting in drafts and chilling by getting wet in cold rains 
are often factors in the production of catarrh among birds. 
Such affections are more or less contagious, but bad sanitation 
plays an important part in their spread. Weak stock and 
poorly nourished birds are predisposed to this contagion. 

Symptoms. — The appetite may be somewhat diminished. 
The bird sneezes, throws its head and may expel some mucus. 
The discharge at first is watery and later becomes more or 
less thick (muco-purulent). The eyes may show more or less 
inflammation (conjunctivitis) and the eyelids may become 
adherent. The characteristic offensive order of roup is absent. 




Fig. 64. Obstruction of the Trachea. 

Showing depression (drooping wings, in- 
ability to stand, etc.) from partial asphyxia- 
tion. 



168 POULTRY DISEASES 

Treatment. — The same treatment as outlined under roup 
(see page 179) has given us uniformly good results. 

The following report of one of the experiments by Mr. 
Coulton, under the direction of the author, illustrates the 
course and treatment of colds in birds : 

With the advent of cold weather, early last fall, a large number 
of our chickens contracted colds, which was extremely discouraging, 
to say the least. We had over one hundred chickens, besides tur- 
keys, and fully twenty-five per cent were affected at one time. In 
addition to the colds which affected the throat, nostrils and eyes, 
many were affected with canker in the mouth. The ordinary reme- 
dies, kerosene, roup cures, etc., were all used, with little effect. We 
finally got from the drug store (at the suggestion of Doctor Kaupp) 
some sulphocarbolates compound tablets and used them, but the 
improvement was not very marked. Later tablets furnished by the 
pathological laboratory of the Colorado Agricultural College (sulpho- 
carbolates compound, thirty grains, with six grains bichlorid of 
mercury to the tablet) were tried. This was not only placed in 
the drinking water, but a solution was used in a syringe to wash 
out the nostrils and mouth. This treatment was marvelously ef- 
fective. It acted like a charm. The catarrhal condition continued, 
however, until the following treatment was used (also at the sug- 
gestion of Doctor Kaupp): 

The nostrils were washed out with a twenty per cent solution of 
common baking soda; then with peroxid of hydrogen, and finally 
with the following preparation: oil of eucalyptus, twenty drops; 
oil of thyme, one dram, and petrol oil, two ounces. A warm solution 
of the soda was always used and the other materials were warmed 
by setting the bottles in hot water. This treatment was also applied 
to the eyes, and the ulcers in the mouth were swabbed with it. The 
results were remarkable. It was almost impossible to make a record 
of these cases, as a large portion of the flock were affected. Further- 
more, it was impossible to give them all the daily treatment pre- 
scribed. Sometimes they would go several days without treatment. 
In mild cases, however, from two to three applications effected a 
cure. 

March 17th we found a young cockerel in a very roupy condition. 
He had been hatched late in the fall and had never been very 
vigorous. His eyes were swollen shut, nostrils discharging badly, 
and, withal his was not a promising case. We isolated him and 
gave him the regulation treatment, as described above. Notwith- 
standing that it stormed severely and he was not well feathered, 
the next day he was showing a decided improvement, and after 
three treatments, covering about five days, all evidence of the 
trouble had disappeared and today he is apparently in better con- 
dition than at any time during the winter. 

A day or two later we found two others belonging to the same 
brood in about the same condition and after one treatment there 
was evidence of improvement, but after a few days, not having 
been able to give them careful attention or regular treatment, they 
seemed to be worse, and we used the hatchet treatment. I am satis- 
fied, however, from our experience, both with chickens and the 
turkeys, when taken in time and treated regularly, it is seldom 
necessary to lose one. We estimated that by this treatment we 
saved ninety-nine per cent of those affected. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 169 

ASTHMA 

Cause. — Asthma in fowls and canaries may be due to as- 
pergillosis of the air passage or it may be due to other 
catarrhal conditions of the mucous membranes of this passage. 

Symptoms. — Wheezing sounds are noted and in expiration 
there is a creaking, whistling sound. 

Treatment. — G-ood sanitary surroundings, clean coop, no 
draft. Treat local condition of which this is a symptom. 

ULCERATIVE PHARYNGITIS 

Symptoms. — The bird may remain on the roost much of 
the time ; there is an unkempt appearance of the plumage ; 
there is gradual loss in flesh when the appetite is interfered 
with, and the bird may find it difficult to swallow. In eat- 
ing corn, wheat and particularly whole unhulled oats the 
throat is irritated and swallowing is difficult, the bird chok- 
ing down, opening its mouth, and sometimes protruding its 
head into the air. A coughing sound is made as the bird 
throws its head. While on the perch or standing tucked up 
around the yard, the bird may be noted to occasionally open 
its mouth, and in fact sitting or standing with its mouth partly 
open is a diagnostic symptom. 

Appearance. — When the mouth is opened and the pharynx 
observed it will be noted to be covered, to a more or less de- 
gree, with yellowish white ulcers varying in size from a wheat 
grain to as large as one's thumbnail. 

Microscopic. — In an examination of the sections from dis- 
eased areas under the microscope one finds an ulceration of 
a diphtheric nature. 

History. — This condition has been studied in many flocks 
where roup has not appeared for years and where there were 
no symptoms of any of the three types of roup. It is not 
believed to be caused by the roup microorganism, but an en- 
tirely separate disease. 

BRONCHITIS 

In some cases we have noted catarrh commencing in the 
head, principally the nasal chambers, extend down and in- 
volve the trachea (wind-pipe), and even to the bronchi 
(branches of the trachea leading to the lung tissues). Sud- 
den changes in the weather, dampness and roosting near a 
crack in the henhouse so that a cold wind blows upon them, 
or, in fact, in any draft, are the principal causes of bron- 
chitis. 

Symptoms. — A rattling sound may be heard in the region 



170 POULTRY DISEASES 

of the trachea and bronchi (neck and anterior part of the 
thorax) — mucous rales. The bird may be seen to gasp for 
air by extending the head upward. This is due to an accu- 
mulation of mucus in the air passages which partially closes 
them, thus preventing the bird from getting enough oxygen 
into its lungs. The affected bird coughs, and there may be 
dullness and partial loss of appetite. 

The condition may pass off in a few days, may respond to 
treatment, or may last for several weeks and end in recovery 
or in death. In the latter case there is marked emaciation; 
in the former the bird coughs up mucus for a long time, but 
otherwise appears well. 

Treatment. — A tablespoonful of castor oil, to which 5 to 
10 drops of turpentine have been added may be given, and if 
catarrh be present, treatment should be as outlined under 
roup. Give one-grain doses quinin sulphate three times a 
day. Place the bird in warm, clean, comfortable quarters, 
free from drafts. Give plenty of clean water and soft feed 
(bread or middlings moistened with milk), to which has been 
added 2 grains of black antimony for each bird. Feed twice 
daily. 

There is a bronchitis and tracheitis found among fowls that is 
apparently contagious. This disease occurs in the same pen each 
year when young, apparently susceptible birds are placed in such 
yards. The affected bird manifests a rattling in the throat and 
trachea, wheezes, coughs, the comb and face appear dark and the 
bird loses flesh. Laying hens cease to lay and cocks cease to 
fertilize eggs. The treatment that has given excellent results con- 
sists of injecting into the trachea some of the menthol and oil 
mixture mentioned under treatment for roup. To do this one 
attendant must hold the bird, a second hold the mouth open and 
the operator forcing the larynx up with one hand drops, with a 
medicine dropper, some of the above mixture into the trachea. 
Usually about three or four drops are sufficient. This should be 
repeated every two or three days if necessary. 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS 

This is an engorgement of the blood vessels of the lungs. 
Congestion of the lungs is quite apt to result in pneumonia, 
of which it may be said to be the first stage. It has been 
observed in young birds and in birds during their molting 
season, when they are poorly clad with feathers and exposed 
to inclement weather. 

Young chicks that are allowed to run out in the early morn- 
ing and become wet with cold dew, and chicks allowed to 
become wet with the cold spring rains and become chilled. 
are likely to suffer from congestion of the lungs and pneu- 
monia. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 171 

A contraction of the blood vessels of the skin and periphery 
forces an abnormal amount of blood to the internal organs, 
;md congestion is the result. Improper feeding and lack of 
exercise are also contributing factors. Birds having this ail- 
ment will be noted to be sleepy and stupid, and to breathe 
rapidly. In some cases the breathing is difficult. The comb 
becomes bluish and the bird may die because it cannot get 
enough air into the lungs (asphyxiation). Upon postmortem 
examination the lungs will be found engorged with blood. 

The pressure of the blood in the engorged blood vessels 
of the lungs may close the smaller air passages which they 
surround, or may burst their thin walls and fill the bronchi 
with blood. In either case rapid asphyxiation occurs. 

Treatment. — Congestion of the lungs runs an exceedingly 
rapid course, terminating in recovery, pneumonia, or death. 
Treatment is impractical. The ailment should be prevented 
by good feeding and adequate protection from cold or wet 
weather. 

PNEUMONIA— INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS 

Bronchitis, described in the foregoing, often terminates in 
pneumonia (broncho-pneumonia). It has been the experi- 
ence of the writer that broncho-pneumonia, following an at- 
tack of bronchitis, is the commonest form of the disease. 

The causes of pneumonia are the same as the causes of 
colds and bronchitis, except that the exposure is often more 
severe. 

Symptoms. — There is an entire loss of appetite, with thirst 
and constipation. The bird stands with the head drawn in, 
drooping wings and ruffled feathers ; breathing is rapid and 
painful, and there may or may not be coughing. There is 
usually a discharge of thick, adhesive mucus from the nos- 
trils; the eyes may be inflamed and water freely. The bird 
has every appearance of severe illness. 

Treatment. — Except in the case of birds of unusual value, 
treatment is wholly impractical, owing to the amount of care 
and nursing necessary and because of the doubtful outcome. 

If treatment is undertaken, the birds should be warmly 
housed and the best of ventilation maintained. Spirits of 
camphor, two drops, and brandy, 10 drops, should be given 
hourly in a teaspoonful of warm milk; if the comb becomes 
dark, add one drop of fluid extract of digitalis to the medi- 
cation. 

Autopsy. — Upon opening the bird that has died from pneu- 
monia, the affected part of the lung will be found to be 
dark red, and when cut through it is liver-like in appearance 



172 POULTRY DISEASES 

and texture. Serum (yellowish fluid) and blood may exude 
from the surface. 

PNEUMOMYCOSIS— ASPERGILLOSIS 

This disease is due to a fungus belonging to the genus 
aspergillus, an organism similar to the common green molds. 
The species that usually affects the lungs of birds is the 
Aspergillus fumigatus. 

Symptoms, — The affected birds are sluggish and stay apart 
from the remainder of the flock ; they sit about on the roosts, 
or in some corner; they are very weak, and later become un- 
able to stand. There is a loss of appetite ; the feathers have 
an unkempt appearance ; the wings are drooping and the eyes 
partially closed. The respiration is accelerated and there is 
a rattling of mucus in the trachea and bronchi. Fever is 
present, and there is ordinarily considerable thirst. The 
affected bird usually dies after a prolonged illness. 

Postmortem Appearance. — Whitish or yellowish nodules, 
varying in size up to a pea, will be noted in the affected 
parts; which may be the trachea, bronchi, lungs and the vari- 
ous air sacs. The fungus may grow upon the surface of the 
mucous membranes forming, at first, a felt-like, whitish mass 
which takes on color according to the species of the fungus 
as it fruits (forms spores). This membranous material, to 
the naked eye, resembles a fibropurulent exudate. The ob- 
struction of the air sacs causes the difficult breathing and 
asphyxiation. 

Inflammation is evident in the diseased areas. Sections 
through these areas of disease show the mycelia (thread-like 
branches of the mold) and the characteristic spores. Focal 
necrosis, preceded by cloudy swelling, is noted in the kidneys 
and other vital organs. A secondary invasion of pus-produc- 
ing organisms may take place and on autopsy abscesses may 
be found in the liver, kidneys, spleen and other organs. 

Treatment. — This is a difficult problem. Placing the af- 
fected birds in a close box and smoking them with tar has 
been advocated. Efforts should be made to eradicate the 
disease from the premises by cleaning and disinfecting them 
as for roup and other infectious diseases. (See pages 110 
and 179.) 

SWELL-HEAD IN YOUNG TURKEYS 

The most characteristic symptoms of this ailment is swell- 
ing of certain parts of the head, especially in the region of 
the maxillary or infraorbital sinus, which becomes filled with 



DISEASES OF THE EESPIRATORY PASSAGES 173 

a gelatinous, colorless substance. (For location of this sinus 
see Fig. 2, No. 31.) 

These swellings may disappear in a few days or weeks or 
may remain for several months. In the latter instance the 
swelling may contain a cheesy material of foul odor, and in 
some cases cause death. 

Treatment. — Open the swollen part and allow the morbid 
collection to drain out. In addition, use the same treatment 
as outlined under roup. 

CHICKENPOX 

This disease affects chickens, turkeys, pigeons and geese. 

Cause. — Some investigations indicate that it is due to an 
ultra-microscopic virus (germ) and that the same germ is also 
the cause of avian diphtheria, or roup. The two conditions 
are, in many cases, found associated. (An ultra-microscopic 
germ is one that will pass through the pores of porcelain 
filters and cannot be seen with the microscope or grown in 
visible quantities upon culture media.) 

In structure the nodules resemble an epithelioma. Con- 
tagious chickenpox can be transmitted from an emulsion of 
the material of a pox nodule, by inoculating the face and 
comb of a healthy bird. 

It has been proved that a maceration of the scrapings from 
the pox in physiological salt solution and injected subcufane- 
ously, will render immunity against further inoculation of 
the disease by scarification and introduction of the virus in 
the face and comb. 

One investigator has claimed that chickenpox is due to a 
nrotozoon (an animal parasite microscopic in size), but other 
investigators have failed to find this organism. 

Symptoms. — The disease appears as small nodules, varying 
run-point size up to the size of a pea, or even much larger. 
It may be accompanied by roup ; in fact, we have studied 
both diseases in the same flock, an occurrence which is not 
uncommon. The question naturally arises, Are both due to 
filtrable viruses, and are both present in the same outbreak, 
or are both due to the same cause? Fig. 65 illustrates a 
case of this disease. The nodules or pimples are at first 
smooth and firm. They may be red and have a hyneremic 
zone. Later the surface may ulcerate and spread until a sore 
a half-incb in diameter is observed. "With proper treatment 
these usually heal. The general tendency of chickenpox is to 
run a mild course. 

Mosquito bites form red pimples, which must be differenti- 
ated from pox nodules. 



174 



POULTRY DISEASES 



One investigator has reported that immunity against chick- 
enpox does not confer immunity to roup. 

Haring and Kofoid have shown that there is a specific antibody 
developed in birds affected with chickenpox. By the use of the 
complement-fixation method the blood from the diseased fowl ex- 
hibited fixation of the complement not shown by normal fowl 
blood, thus showing that it is a specific germ disease. The antigen 
was prepared both from the tumors on the head and from the liver 
of birds sick of the disease. 

Treatment. — The same sanitary regulations should be put 
into force as under fowl cholera. No birds should be sold 










Fig. 65. Chicken Pox. 
A, epithelial, tumor-like nodules; B, an ulcer. 

from the flock while the disease exists among them. Clean- 
ing of yards and houses and keeping them clean, as well as 
frequent disinfection, are essential. Antiseptics, as recom- 
mended under cholera, may be given in the feed and water. 
The heads of affected birds should be bathed in an antisep- 
tic solution. The nodules may be touched with lunar caustic 
and 24 hours later covered with vaselin. 

DIPHTHERIC ROUP 

There is considerable confusion regarding contagious epithe- 
lioma and diphtheria of fowls, and authorities upon infec- 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 175 



lions diseases are not agreed as to whether they are distinct 
diseases or somewhat different types of one affection. The 
reason for this confusion is readily apparent when a careful 
study of the diseased birds is undertaken, provided a suffi- 
cient number of outbreaks are considered. Until recently 
they were considered as two distinct diseases ; the former pre- 
senting "scab-like" nodules upon the skin of the unfeathered 
portions of the head; the latter diphtheria-like false mem- 
branes in the nose, mouth, throat, eyelids and cavities in the 
head. Diphtheritic roup occurs in outbreaks in which the 
skin is never affected. Contagious epithelioma may attack 
the comb and wat- 
tles alone, but it 
frequently affects 
also the lining 
membranes of the 
eyelids, the cover- 
ing of the front of 
the eyeball and the 
mouth and nostrils. 
It is especially 
likely to attack the 
borders of the eye- 
lids and the cor- 
ners of the mouth, 
extending thence 
to the surface of 
the adjacent lining 
membranes. When 
the latter are af- 
fected, the tissue changes cannot be distinguished from those 
which occur in outbreaks of diphtheria in which the skin is 
never affected. 

In many infectious diseases the microorganisms which cause 
them may be distinguished microscopically by some structural 
or staining peculiarity; or they may be isolated and culti- 
vated in artificial media by standard bacteriological methods 
and recognized by some property possessed by them ; in still 
others there are certain specific reactions which may be util- 
ized for differentiation ; again the inoculation of test animals 
may serve to identify and separate them from some other in- 
fections. In this disease or group of diseases, those methods 
are not available. The microorganism which causes roup is 
not known; it cannot be grown artificially in cultures, nor 
have the attempts to cultivate that which causes chickenpox 
or contagious epithelioma succeeded. Fowls can be success- 




Fig. 66. Roup in a Chicken. 
A, bulging of infraorbital or maxillary sinus. 



176 POULTRY DISEASES 

fully inoculated with contagious epithelioma, producing typ- 
ical tissue changes upon the comb and wattles, or in the eye 
and mouth, using the virus contained in the scabs removed 
from the comb or wattles of sick birds for inoculation. Such 
inoculations, however, do not serve to distinguish one disease 
from the other, provided contagious epithelioma and diph- 
theria or roup are separate and distinct diseases. 

Transmission of the disease is not very difficult. Usually 
about 70 per cent of healthy birds will show symptoms of 
the disease after associating with an affected one for a short 
time. Actual contact is not necessary, as is shown by the 
spread of the disease at poultry shows. It has been noted 
that in experimental work in using an infecting bird with 
pox lesions, mucous membrane lesions of roup would appear 
in the birds subjected to and developing the disease, and in 
some cases where the roup type was used, pox lesions would 
develop in the exposed contracting birds. 

Emulsions of scrapings from either cutaneous or mucous 
membrane lesions injected subcutaneously, submucously or ap- 
plied to scarified areas on the skin, would in some cases pro- 
duce the generalized form of the disease, that is, both pox and 
roup types combined. 

As hinted before in this disease, there are secondary in- 
vaders which cause aggravated symptoms. These infections 
manifest themselves after the filtrable virus has produced 
more mild symptoms. The more common of these secondary 
invaders is the Bacillus diphtheriae columbarum of Loeffler. 

Therefore the filtrable virus is the necessary primary in- 
vader which lowers the bird's resistance and thus prepares 
the tissues for the invasion by the secondary organisms. 
Neither factor alone will cause the typical disease. 

Mode of Spread. — Diphtheric roup is spread by birds intro- 
duced into a flock from infected premises, and by exposure, as 
at poultry shows. A chronic type of the disease in one or 
more birds (carriers) in a flock may serve to infect others 
when they are weakened by predisposing causes, as by ex- 
posure to cold or dampness, or by roosting in drafts, or in 
badly ventilated buildings. The beak bathed with nasal dis- 
charges constantly contaminates the drinking water and feed. 

Symptoms. — There are three forms of the disease or the 
lesions. Any or all may be present in the same bird. 

1. The nasal type. — This type is characterized at first by a 
thin, watery discharge with an offensive odor characteristic of 
roup. Later the catarrhal product becomes somewhat thicker 
(mucopurulent) and the nostrils become occluded (glued 
shut), and quite frequently there is a bulging of the sinus 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 177 

(cavity) in front and below .the eye. This is cine to an accu- 
mulation of the inflammatory products in this sinus. Fig. 66 
illustrates this common swelling. 

2. The diphtheric type. — This type affects the mouth and 
often accompanies the nasal form. Fig. 67 illustrates diph- 
theric ulcerations, which are yellowish or yellowish-white in 
color. From these necrosing patches the disease receives its 
name, avian diphtheria. 

3. The ocular type. — In this form there is first noted an 




Fig. 67. Diphtheric Roup in a Chicken. 
A, the yellowish-white diphtheric patches on upper surface of tongue 
and lower jaw (natural size) ; B, diphtheric patches on hard palate and 
upper jaw. 



inflammation of the mucous membrane covering the anterior 
portion of the eyeball (conjunctivitis). As the disease pro- 
gresses, the catarrhal product accumulates as a watery, clot- 
like mass, whitish in color. The eyelids stick together and 
hold the material as it accumulates, till the part bulges out- 
ward. 

There is noted sneezing, shaking the head, and expulsion of 
mucus. There is a loss of appetite, the bird appears weak, 
walks unsteadily, and becomes emaciated rapidly. At times 
breathing is difficult, and there is often a diarrhea. 



178 POULTRY DISEASES 

Three stages then follow : catarrhal, characterized by a 
mucus, or mucopurulent, discharge; diphtheric, affecting the 
mouth and throat and characterized by the formation of a 
membrane on the surface which may be followed later by 
sloughing (formation of a mass of dead tissue) ; and con- 
junctival, affecting the eyes, and often causing a destruction of 
the eyeball. 

General Symptoms. — In the early stages before much sec- 
ondary infection takes place, there are no marked general 
symptoms. Later marked general symptoms appear. The 
birds show dullness, assume a sitting posture, wings are held 
pendant, plumage becomes rough and the patients show much 
depression. The comb and wattles grow bluish-red in color, 
later they are pale and cold. In the colder climates the dis- 
ease often assumes a subacute or chronic form, whilp in 
warmer climates the acute form is more often observed. Fre- 
quently, however, the disease assumes the character of a 
chronic catarrh. 

Diagnosis. — The disease usually makes its first appearance 
in the fall of the year and often occurs as the cutaneous 
form ; it may be overlooked, especially if the birds are on the 
range. The mucous membrane form usually makes its ap- 
pearance soon after housing for the winter. The sneezing, 
mouth breathing, occluded nostrils, and an occasional in- 
flamed eye, are significant especially when rapidly spreading 
through the flock. Soon after, a few will refuse food and 
appear depressed. 

It must also be suspected when similar symptoms appear 
after adding new birds to a healthy flock or returned birds 
from shows. 

A peculiar characteristic and offensive odor is associated 
with this disease, and poultrymen familiar with it often rec- 
ognize the disease from the odor alone. The same odor is 
given off by cultures. 

Differential Diagnosis. — "Wounds on the skin around the 
head, usually pick inflicted, appear suspicious, but these heal 
rapidly without extensive thickening. An injury to the eye, 
even though serious, will not cause the formation of the 
characteristic yellow deposit. Difficult resDiration is rarely 
seen in more than one bird in a flock. Healthy flocks and 
those intended for exhibition purposes may be vaccinated to 
establish immunitv. Tbis has proved very satisfactory. The 
immunity established will last for at least one year. 

Postmortem Appearance. — The toxin (poison) from the 
areas of disease is very destructive, as the rapid emaciation 
of the bird, following a severe attack, shows. Upon examina- 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 179 

tion of the membranes that have formed in the mouth, it will 
be found that when they are removed there is left a raw, 
granular-appearing surface. Upon microscopic examination, 
there may be seen cellular infiltration, with a destruction of 
cells of the mucous membrane underlying the diphtheric 
patch. An examination of the maxillary (suborbital) sinus 
(see Fig. 2, No. 31) will reveal it to be filled with a purulent 
material, which is often cheesy in consistency. The wall over 
this part is very thin and can be easily^ opened with a knife. 

A microscopic study of sections of the head, through the 
inflamed area (the mucous lining of the nasal passage) shows 
considerable thickening and an acute inflammation (invasion 
of polymorphonuclear leukocytes) ; at times the entire pas- 
sage is "plugged" with the mucus. 

On examination of the eye and mucous membrane sur- 
rounding the anterior portion of the eyeball, there may be 
seen a cloudy condition of the cornea, the anterior portion 
of the ball {keratitis). There is also an acute inflammation 
of the mucous membrane of the eye (acute conjunctivitis). 

In cases studied in this laboratory it has been found that 
the acute inflammation extends to the iris and ciliary mus- 
cles and their surrounding structures. 

Treatment. — Correct any bad sanitation or hygiene, which 
may be a predisposing cause. The henhouse should be well 
ventilated, but should allow no drafts on the birds, and 
should be kept clean and free from dampness. It should be 
cleaned and disinfected daily with some of the mixtures here- 
tofore described and recommended for this purpose. If the 
bird is not a valuable one, kill and cremate it, the body as 
well as the head. 

General Preventive Measures. — Isolation of all diseased 
fowls from the flock and the removal and burning of all dead 
fowls. 

Cleaning and disinfecting of the houses and yards. The 
resistance of chickenpox virus to the action of disinfectants 
makes it imperative to disinfect the houses and yards thor- 
oughly. 

Quarantining for two weeks of all the new stock and of 
birds returned from poultry exhibits. 

Careful examination of each fowl occasionally, if the dis- 
ease is present in the neighborhood. 

Preventive Vaccination. — The immunization of fowls against 
chickenpox has been practiced by a number of investigators. 

Medicinal treatment differs, with the location of the lesion. 
For the ulcers, or diphtheric patches, in the mouth, nothing 
is better than cauterizing with lunar caustic. A solution of 



180 POULTRY DISEASES 

silver nitrate cannot be used, as the fluid will run down and 
burn other parts of the mouth and throat. 

With the thumb and finger press open the eyelids and with 
clean absorbent cotton remove the white catarrhal material, 
then apply the same remedy as for injection into the nos- 
trils. The following has given good results in our experi- 
mental work and with those to whom we have recommended it : 

Wash out the nasal passage with a twenty per cent solu- 
tion of sodium bicarbonate (common baking soda), using a 
medicine dropper or, better, a small syringe, as the material 
must be forced so as to pass through the nasal passage into 
the mouth (refer to Fig. 2, Nos. 29 to 33). Then inject, in 
like manner, peroxid of hydrogen. The soda dissolves and 
removes the mucus, and the peroxid of hydrogen cleans out 
the cavity. The parts should then be cleansed with essential 
oils, which may be applied directly to the inflamed mucous 
membranes. Inject a quantity of the following: 

Oil of thyme 30 drops 

Oil of eucalyptus 20 drops 

Menthol 10 grains 

Oil of petrol 2 ounces 

Mix thoroughly. 

In aggravated cases, repeat this treatment three times a 
day. Give an abundance of clean water and soft, easily di- 
gested feed. 

DIPHTHERIC INFLAMMATION OF THE EYES IN DUCKS 

There is first noticed an itching of the eyes manifested by 
the duck rubbing them. There is noted later an inflammation 
of the conjunctival mucous membrane accompanied by a 
thick yellowish secretion. Diphtheric areas may develop with 
ulceration of the cornea. The conjunctival discharge ap- 
pears to be caustic to the skin with which it may come in 
contact. The ducks become emaciated. The disease may last 
for several weeks. There appears to be no marked changes 
in the internal organs. 

POX OF TURKEYS 

We have been studying a condition among turkeys in this 
laboratory for the past few months that appears to be dif- 
ferent from any disease we have heretofore studied. It is, in 
some years, quite prevalent in the Southeastern States and 
\n Cum. 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 181 

The turkeys brought to the laboratory were kept in the 
back yard of a city residence. There were four in the flock 
and one after the other had become affected. 




Fig. 68. Skiagraph of Head and Neck of Chicken. 
A, trachea; B, esophagus; C, vertebra; D, crop filled with grains of 
wheat; E, infraorbital or maxillary sinus; F, frontal sinus; G, feathers; 
H, nostrils; I, eyes; J, musculature. 

Prom the standpoint of a field study it appears to be con- 
tagious. 

The pox are noted on the unfeathered portions of the head 



182 POULTRY DISEASES 

and neck. There is at first noted a small pimple-like eleva- 
tion, which gradually becomes larger and in the course of 
a few days may appear four or even five millimeters in diam- 
eter and two or three millimeters in elevation. They do 
not appear as is the case in chickenpox; that is, they have 
no rounded bleb-like appearance, but have almost perpendicu- 
lar walls, with flat tops, and are shaped like an opera hat. 

In the course of a few days, in many cases without any 
treatment, the diseased area becomes dry and the side walls 
may be picked off, leaving a whitish, scar-like spot. The 
disease usually does not appear very virulent and little or no 
treatment is required. In some cases where we have advised 
the use of a five per cent carbolized vaselin, excellent results 
have been reported. Again, where we have had cases under 
our observation, they recovered without treatment. How- 
ever, there can be little doubt but that at times the attacks 
are rather severe and may even cause death. "While this has 
been reported to us upon good, reliable sources, yet we have 
not personally made such observations. The cases studied 
in the laboratory did not appear to suffer constitutionally, 
as there was no loss of appetite and the birds were in good 
flesh. 

Only one test was made to determine if the disease could 
be transmitted. The curetted material from a fresh nodule 
was rubbed in a scarified area of the comb of a three-year-old 
White Orpington cock. The results of this one test were 
negative. No opportunity was afforded to conduct experi- 
ments upon birds not exposed to the disease, though such 
procedure is contemplated. 

CONTAGIOUS INFLAMMATION OF THE AIR SACS IN 

GEESE 

This is an infectious disease caused by a slender bacillus. 

The symptoms are those of weakness, staggery gait, great depres- 
sion, difficultly in rising, kicking at the head, accelerated respira- 
tion, snoring sounds and opening the mouth. The bird usually dies 
in about six to eight days. The disease is confined exclusively to 
geese. 

On autopsy the air sacs are noted to appear yellowish in color, 
with their inner surfaces covered with a fibrinous material. Similar 
deposits are found on the serous surfaces of the liver, spleen, intes- 
tines and peritoneum. 

CONTAGIOUS NASAL CATARRH OF BIRDS 

This condition has been called Goryza avium contagiosa. 
Cause. — This disease can be reproduced by experimental 
inoculation. It occurs epizootically, mostly among young 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 183 

fowls, during damp, cold weather and more often in the fall 
or spring. It may attack old hens. Here it is of economic 
importance because of the loss in the egg yield. Many young 
birds succumb to its ravages. The mucous secretions of the 
head contain the virus. A bacillus resembling in some re- 
spects the diphtheria bacillus has been found accompanying 
the disease which Colin and others have termed the bacillus 
of fowl diphtheria. 

Symptoms. — The contagium is spread by the nasal dis- 
charges becoming disseminated. The entire flock in the course 
of two to six weeks may become affected. The sick bird 
stays apart from the balance of the flock and sits around with 
ruffled feathers and droopy wings. There is a partial loss 
of appetite, tears may be seen to accumulate in the con- 
junctiva. The outer nasal passage becomes closed and breath- 
ing is accomplished with difficulty and by way of the mouth. 
The bird sneezes and shakes its head. The eyes are kept 
closed and the eyelids become adherent by a small amount 
of secretions which dry on the outer edge of the lids. The 
infra-orbital sinus may become filled and bulge out, much as 
is often the case in roup. The mortality may run as high 
as 95 per cent. The nasal secretions remain thin. It is dif- 
ferentiated from roup by the fact that diphtheric membranes 
never form in the mouth or eye and there are no sores on the 
head in contagious nasal catarrh. 

Treatment. — The same treatment and other sanitary regu- 
lations as in roup are indicated in this malady. 

CONJUNCTIVITIS 

Most inflammations of the respiratory passages extend to 
and involve the eye structures also. These affections of the 
eye have been described under catarrh, roup, etc. 

There are many causes of inflammation of the mucous 
membrane of the eye aside from the specific germs heretofore 
mentioned. A chick was brought to our laboratory with one 
eye swollen. Upon examination, there was found a piece of 
straw about one-fourth of an inch in length lodged in the 
conjunctival sac. Upon removal of this piece of straw, and 
the application of a one-per-cent solution of zinc sulphate, 
the inflammation subsided in the course of a day or two. 

The number and variety of foreign bodies that may gain 
access to the eye structures and set up inflammation are 
numberless. In most cases their careful removal and wash- 
ing the eye with a saturated solution of boracic acid or a so- 
lution of zinc sulphate and water, 1 to 100, constitute all 
the treatment that is required. 



184 



POULTRY DISEASES 



Similar washes are indicated for conjunctivitis due to in- 
juries, spurring, picking blows, etc. 

ULCERATION OF THE CORNEA 

Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane 
surrounding the anterior part of the eyeball. At times this 
inflammation spreads by contiguity to the cornea. The in- 
flamed cornea becomes cloudy and finally may totally obstruct 
the eyesight. There is frequently found in connection with 
this an ulceration of the cornea. Fig. 69 is a case of a single 
comb Rhode Island Red chick which had developed keratitis 
when three weeks of age. The eye was enucleated, hardened 
in 40 per cent formaldehyd solution and sectioned for study. 
It was found that there was a pan-hemorrhagic condition. 

Ulceration of the cornea is sometimes found in conjunction 
with the eye type of roup. There is an intense conjunctivitis, 
an accumulation of quantities of purulent or catarrhal prod- 
ucts in the conjunctival sac and a keratitis and later panoph- 
thalmia. 




Fig. 69. Ulceration of the Cornea with Hemorrhage Into the 

Anterior., Posterior and Vitreous Chambers in a 

Three Days Old Chick. 



RESPIRATORY TROUBLES OF CANARIES 

The cage of the canaries should be kept clean, free from 
drafts and the birds should have a well regulated food sup- 
ply. When the bird is first noticed to be ill, isolate it, regulate 
the diet and look to good sanitary conditions of the cage and 
keep it in a well regulated temperature. Canaries are sub- 
ject to cold drafts and it may be said that most of their com- 
mon ailments come from this sort of exposure. 

In ordinary colds there is noted difficult breathing, with 



DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY PASSAGES 185 

some liquid discharge from the nostrils. This may be ac- 
companied with coughing. As the cold progresses the symp- 
toms become more aggravated. Breathing becomes more dif- 
ficult and rapid. The catarrhal secretions may partially or 
completely block the nasal passage. 

ASTHMA OF CANARIES 

This is a chronic affection of canary birds. In the breath- 
ing processes there is a labored expiration. In severe cases 
a contraction of abdominal muscles is evident in forcing air 
from the lungs. Asthma is more evident at night, and often 
birds apparently free from it during the day will wheeze 
when at rest. 

False asthma may be caused by indigestion and overeat- 
ing. Fanciers consider asthma as hereditary and do not 
recommend such birds for breeding. There is little that can 
be done for this condition except to give a light diet. 

Treatment. — Place in the drinking cup one ounce of water 
to which has been added 20 drops of syrup of tolu, 10 drops 
sweet spirits of niter, and 10 drops of glycerin. If the case 
is severe add 10 drops of whiskey or brandy. Pneumonia is 
quite often fatal. The birds become very weak and usually 
die in from two to seven days. 



SECTION XII 

DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 

LEG WEAKNESS 

This is a condition in which the birds cannot bear their own 
weight or have difficulty in doing so. It occurs in young as 
well as in old birds but there is a possibility that the cause 
in young birds is different from that in old birds. Knowledge 
as to the causes of leg weakness, so common at times in certain 
localities, is imperfect. The conditions are being investigated, 
however, in several laboratories. 

Possible Causes. — In young chicks some of the causes are 
believed to be improperly heated brooders, too much bottom 
heat, damp and badly ventilated houses and keeping chicks 
constantly on wooden floors. We have seen it in our flocks 
where they were on wooden floors and as soon as they were 
turned out on dirt runs the disease disappeared. It has been 
reported where the chicks were kept on cement floors but 
usually disappearing, as in our experience, when the chicks 
are allowed to run out on dirt during the warmer part of 
the day. There is little doubt that overheating and too much 
under heat is one prime causative factor; for, since the hov- 
ers supplying: top instead of under heat came into common 
use there does not appear to be so much leg weakness among 
the baby chicks. It appears to be the artifically-brooded chicks 
that develop leg weakness and the disease is supposed to be 
unknown among the natural brooded chicks especially where 
the hen and brood are provided with the combination sitting 
and brooding coop. 

Leg weakness may be observed in birds that are heavily 
fed and that grow rapidly and where the birds' weight ap- 
pears to increase faster than their strength. Overcrowding 
and close ventilation are no doubt contributing factors. 

In adult birds leg weakness may be due to rheumatism and 
possibly to some extent this may be the case in younger birds. 
Cockerels are apparently more often affected than pullets. 
It is apparently more prevalent among the heavier breeds 
than among the lighter ones. 

Symptoms. — Leg weakness or paralysis among old birds is 
widespread in the United States. It usually appears sporad- 
ically and could hardly be considered in the sense of a con- 
tagion. In addition to the leg weakness which at times results 



188 POULTEY DISEASES 

in a total loss of the legs, there is usually noted a fetid 
diarrhea. The bird may or may not have a loss of appetite, 
it gradually becomes emaciated and finally dies. The bird in 
the later stages lies helpless upon its side, often with one or 
both legs extending backwards from the body. 

Leg weakness among baby chicks at times appears suddenly 
and with a change in environmental conditions it disappears 
just as suddenly. The worst cases die and the milder ones 
may recover. The condition may affect only one, or at most 
a few birds. The same condition also applies to old birds. 
There is unsteadiness in walking, and in badly affected cases 
the bird sits around till finally the muscular function is en- 
tirely arrested when the leg or legs extend backward from 
the body. In the baby chicks the legs present a shriveled 
appearance. 

Birds so affected do not find it possible to obtain their 
portion of feed unless helped, as the other birds crowd them 
away. The only safe way is to remove them from the flock 
and give them extra care. Such birds, if not helped and given 
proper feed, do not gain in flesh as do the balance of the 
flock and they become thin in flesh. 

As a differential diagnosis between leg weakness and rheu- 
matism, it may be said that in rheumatism the lameness shifts, 
disappears and reappears, and in case of affection of the 
joints there will be noted swelling which will be hot and 
painful to the touch. In leg weakness these symptoms never 
appear. 

Post Mortem Appearance. — No definite lesions can be found 
in the baby chick that has died of leg weakness. All organs 
in old fowls that have died of paralysis are apparently normal 
except the bowel which is highly injected and at times may 
show petechias of the mucosa. The vent fluff is usually soiled 
as a result of diarrhea. 

All efforts, in this laboratory, to isolate a causative germ 
or to reproduce the disease have failed. There has been no 
organism isolated from the blood nor from the internal or- 
gans that will reproduce the disease and inoculations of emul- 
sions from the brain and spinal cord of birds dead of the 
disease have failed to reproduce it. 

"While we feel sure that leg weakness in baby chicks is 
due to environmental conditions, we are not so sure that 
paralysis of adult fowls is not due to a germ. This work is 
still being carried on in this laboratory. 

Treatment. — Give to old birds one-sixth grain doses of sul- 
phate of strychnin, in tablet form or in capsule, three times 
a day. If rheumatism is suspected give two-grain doses of 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 189 

salicylate of sodium three times a day. Give one teaspoonful 
of castor oil in severe cases in adult fowls. 

Properly ventilate the quarters, keep them clean, free from 
dampness, and supply the birds with good wholesome feed 
and water. If the cause is a lack of lime salts (rachitis), 
milk and lime water should be given freely. Feed ground 
bone and meat meal to baby chicks and place the chicks on 
the ground, at least, through the warmer part of the day. 
Even temperature and proper heat must be supplied baby 
chicks at all times. We have found by laboratory studies 
that fifteen minutes chilling may cause congestion of the 
lungs and kidneys and result fatally. 

Remove the affected birds, in case of disease among young 
chicks, and reduce the amount of fat forming feeds. Give 
the proper protein ration. A narrow ration is needed. (N. 
R. 1:3) Feed oatmeal and oats, cracked and whole wheat, 
plenty of green feed, sour milk and one teaspoonful fluid nux 
vomica to each pint of water. 

INFECTIOUS ARTICULAR INFLAMMATION IN YOUNG 
GEESE AND DUCKS 

Freeze and Lucet report infectious arthritis in young ducks 
and geese five to eight weeks old. The organism isolated in 
all their investigations was the Staphylococcus pyogenes au- 
reus. They were able to reproduce the disease with inocula- 
tions of pure cultures of the organism. 

Symptoms. — The acute type causes lameness. If the affected 
joint is in the wing, the wing will hang pendulous. There is a 
loss of appetite, diarrhea and at times slight conjunctivitis. 
The course is rapid, resulting fatally in three or four days 
after the first manifestation of the disease. 

In the chronic type, arthritis is the most prominent symp- 
tom. Diarrhea may be present in the onset of the disease 
and the bird may recover in two to three weeks. The bird is 
stunted and does not fatten satisfactorily. 

The structural changes consist of a serous or sero-fibrinous 
inflammation of the joints. There is a hemorrhagic inflam- 
mation of the bone marrow. In chronic cases purulent osteo- 
myelitis may occur. Intestinal catarrh is noted. 

Treatment. — This consists of local applications; fomenta- 
tion of the affected joint with hot water thirty minutes twice 
daily. 

PARALYSIS OF THE WINGS OF PIGEONS 

The shoulder and elbow of the wing of carrier pigeons are 
sometimes affected by arthritis, which has been described as 



190 



POULTRY DISEASES 



infectious. The affected wing droops and the bird is unable 
to fly. m 

Predisposing causes are, housing in cold lofts and allowing 
the birds to roost in drafts. 

The affected birds should be isolated from the balance of 
the flock. 

Abscess formation sometimes occurs, pus being of a case- 
ous consistency. Birds may recover, but if abscesses form 
they may lose the power of flight. 

ABSCESS OF THE FOOT 

Abscess of the foot may be caused by injury due to a 
thorn as a Russian thistle or hedge thorn having punctured 
the soft parts. In Figure 70 there is illustrated an abscess 
of this nature. The thorn has penetrated the soft parts be- 
tween the two inner toes. A. 
indicates an opening through 
which a cheesy pus was re- 
moved by aid of a curette. 
No treatment other than 
opening the abscess and 
scraping out the pus was 
given. The bird made a per- 
fect recovery. 

Abscess of the sole of the 
foot is of common occurrence. 
This condition is sometimes 
called "bumble foot." The 
sole of the foot becomes 
bruised by a thorn prick, 
stone bruise or other injury 
resulting in suppuration. It 
may also result from birds 
jumping onto hard floors 
from high perches. Pus in 
the domestic fowl is always of 
a cheesy nature ; that is, there 
is no liquid present so that 
simple lancing will not be ef- 
fective as the pus will not drain out, but must be scraped out. 
It is best in treating these conditions to make a bold incision 
laying open the parts and carefully curette out every particle 
of the material, then saturate with tincture of iodin and dress 
with absorbent cotton and bandage. Dress the wound once 
daily. 

After treatment of the foot, place the bird in a clean, dry 
place, preferably on straw, so as to keep dirt out of the sore. 




Fig. 70. Thorn Abscess. 
A, opening through which cheesy pus 
was liberated. 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION 191 

After the foot has healed it will be found to be somewhat 
larger than normal. The sole of the foot will be somewhat 
tender for a while, and to prevent rebruising and reforma- 
tion of an abscess it is well to place a leather pad on the sole 
of the foot. 

A condition due to cactus thorns has recently been studied. 
This condition occurs in baby chicks and is manifested by 
the legs and feet becoming somewhat shrivelled or appearing 
"dried up." The toes may become crooked and finally dry 
gangrene and death of the young bird result. This condition 
has been produced experimentally. 

GOUT OF FOWLS 

Gout of the joints is an inflammation of the fibrous and 
ligamentous parts of the joints. It is accompanied by an 
excess of uric acid and deposits of urates of sodium in and 
around the joints. 

Gout may also attack the internal organs and cause de- 
posits of sodium urates in them. This type is called visceral 
gout. 

Gout attacks man and some of the lower animals such as 
fowls and dogs. 

The histology of urate deposits, both experimental and 
gouty, have been studied by Krause, Rosenbach and Freud- 
weiler. Their results all indicate that uric acid and urates 
excite slight inflammatory reactions, cause a slight local ne- 
crosis, and seem to act as a weak tissue poison. However, 
they may be deposited without causing necrosis. 

That urates may cause necrosis in the tissues has been defi- 
nitely established, and this may lead to connective tissue 
formation and contraction. 

Gout is more common in birds force-fed and given rich 
nitrogenous diet and in old birds where the eliminating ac- 
tion of the kidneys is more or less impaired. Birds normally 
excrete large quantities of uric acid, which appears on the 
outer surface of the droppings as a whitish liquid or semi- 
liquid. 

It would appear that the preponderance in the blood of 
substances which are of acid reaction favors the precipitation 
of uric acid. 

Uric acid is converted into sodium urate by the salts in the 
blood in two ways : First, by breaking down of the nucleo- 
albumins of the tissue and especially perhaps of those con- 
tained within the leukocytes ; and second, from similar sub- 
stances contained in the food (Greene). 

Excess of uric salts in the blood may be produced either 



192 POULTRY DISEASES 

by increased formation of these substances or by diminished 
excretion of them or by failure to utilize and destroy them in 
the metabolism of the tissues. 

Hutyra and Marek state that Kionka and Barnes produced 
typical gout in fowl by feeding them for several months ex- 
clusively on horse flesh. Kossa points out that gout is caused 
by chronic poisoning by oxalic acid, carbolic acid, corrosive 
sublimate, aloin and acetone. 

If the ureters of the bird be ligated, gout may occur ; hence, 
it is argued that perverted function of the kidneys or ureters 
may be a contributing factor in the production of gout. Lack 
of exercise predisposes to gouty conditions. Male birds are 
more frequently attacked than females. 

In visceral gout the chalky or mortar-like deposits may be 
observed in the air sacs, pericardium, peritoneum, heart, or 
liver. 

In the articular form the joints of the feet are more often 
affected. Birds suffer especially in the tarsal, metatarsal and 
phalangeal joints and at times in the joints of the wings. 

In birds there is, in the early stages, extreme tenderness 
as manifested by the bird standing on one limb or resting on 
the breast and moping around, staying away from the bal- 
ance of the flock. There is a limp of the affected limb. At 
first the affected limb is swollen, soft, hot and tender and 
may pit on pressure ; later the parts may become extremely 
hard. The enlargements may attain the size of an English 
walnut and the parts may undergo necrosis. When necrosis 
occurs there may be discharged a granular yellowish grey 
material similar to talc. The bones may become deflected 
from their normal direction as a result of the process. The 
diagnostic symptom is the finding of deposits of sodium urate 
in the lesions. 

The study as a basis of this article was made in two capons, 
one a five-year-old Barred Plymouth Rock and the other a 
five-year-old single comb Rhode Island Red. These birds had 
been allowed to run at large and did not wander far from 
the barn, where there was, at times, an abundance of grain 
and especially more or less sprouting grain. 

These birds were quite lame, sitting around in comfortable 
places and only moving when necessary. They were often 
noted to stand alternately on one foot or the other to ease 
the pain. The swellings were irregular in shape and hard. 
The nodules measured three-quarters of an inch at the larg- 
est diameter. The mobility of these joints were limited. 

In these birds the feather coat was rather rough ; the comb 
and wattles as well as the face were pale. 



DISEASES OF THE ORGANS OP LOCOMOTION 193 

"When gout assumes a chronic type, the prognosis is un- 
favorable. When ulcers are present it is observed that they 
do not entirely heal. The birds finally become unable to move 
about and care for themselves, become emaciated, exhausted 
and die. 



SECTION XIII 
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES 

DIZZINESS— VERTIGO 

Affections of the brain are comparatively rare in birds. 
Vertigo has been known where the brain is congested, es- 
pecially in very fat, plethoric birds. Excessive heat in hot 
summer weather; absorption of poisonous substances (toxins) 
from the intestinal tract; irritation due to intestinal worms; 
injury to the head, as by a blow, etc., are the chief causes of 
dizziness in birds. 

Vertigo has been observed in baby chicks. The birds appear 
dizzy, finally fall over on their side helpless and in a few 
minutes may recover or finally may die. 

Symptoms.- — The adult bird throws its head upward, back- 
ward, and to one side. It may walk sidewise or backward, 
and have an unsteady walk — staggery. The bird may be 
drowsy, and even have epileptiform symptoms. 

Treatment. — Place the affected bird in cool, well ventilated, 
comfortable quarters, free from drafts, and for the adult give 
thirty grains of Epsom salt, dissolved in warm water. Give 
also two-grain doses strontium bromid every hour. Thorough 
purging is one of the first essentials. 

In case of limber neck (due to eating rotten meat) and 
prostration, give one-fifth grain strychnin three times a day. 
(See page 229.) 

HEMORRHAGE OF THE BRAIN 

This condition is technically called apoplexy. It may be 
due to over-straining, as in egg-laying, in very fat birds. In- 
jury to the head and over-stimulating food are also causes. 

Symptoms. — The hen may be found dead on the nest. The 
symptoms are of short duration : the attack comes on sud- 
denly, as the hemorrhage soon presses on the brain structures 
so that the function of that part stops and the animal is seen 
to stagger, fall, and die immediately. 

Postmortem Findings. — Upon opening the brain cavity and 
examining the brain, there will be found hemorrhages (clots) 
in the brain substance. 

EPILEPSY 

In the attack the bird emits sharp sounds, makes flopping 
movements with its wings, falls on its side or back, moves 



196 POULTRY DISEASES 

its feet rapidly, rolls its eyeballs, bends its neck round to one 
side, opens and shuts its beak alternately, and moves the 
whole body to and fro. 

After one or two minutes the spasms cease and the bird 
gets up, staggers and may at first support itself with its beak 
and outstretched wings and finally falls because of a fresh 
attack or it may gradually recover from the first attack with- 
out any immediate renewal of the spasms. 

Hemiplegia sometimes follows as a sequel of this disease. 

Epileptiform attacks are sometimes caused by internal para- 
sites. 

Treatment should consist of a physic. During the attack 
the bird should be cared for to prevent its injuring itself. 

MYELITIS 

Myelitis is an inflammation of the spinal marrow or its 
membranes. There are indications of a deep seated burning 
pain. It is accompanied by various nervous and vascular ir- 
regularities of function. 

Myelitis in the cervical region of the bird has been ob- 
served and is noted to manifest itself by paresis and hyperes- 
thesia of the wing, lateral flexion of the neck during repose 
so that the beak may be directed backwards. During feed- 
ing the head may be carried in a normal position. 

POLYNEURITIS 

Ohler has shown that birds fed on a diet wholly of wheat 
bread develop a polyneuritis similar to polyneuritis gallinarum 
as produced in fowls with a diet of polished rice. The dis- 
ease made its appearance in from twenty-one to eighty-two 
days, with an average of about forty days. 

In the large majority of the fowls the first symptoms of 
paralysis were a slight unsteadiness, together with evidence 
of an involvement of the nerves supplying the extensor mus- 
cles of the legs, manifested by a high step and a tendency 
to bring the foot down with a flop. In many fowls there 
seems to be difficulty in coordination early in the disease. In 
such cases the fowls teeter slightly forward as if trying to 
balance on their toes and walking is with a decided ataxic 
gait. As the disease progressed in all cases walking became 
more and more difficult, until the birds could only squat in 
the cages, and this condition was soon followed by one of 
complete paralysis. The disease usually began with periph- 
eral paralysis and later an involvement of the higher nerve 
centers. When fowls were fed on white bread made without 
yeast, they came down with a polyneuritis somewhat sooner 



DISEASES OP THE BRAIN AND NERVES 197 

than when fed with bread containing yeast. Hoist found the 
same to hold true in feeding- pigeons with ship biscuits. When 
fowls were fed on whole wheat bread, they remained perfectly 
well for as long as seventy-five days. It is apparent that 
whole wheat bread contains some element, or elements, lack- 
ing in the white bread, which is necessary to maintain the 
proper bodily metabolism. Fowls force-fed came down fully 
as soon as those that were allowed to eat at will, indicating 
that it is not a matter of how much feed is taken, but its 
quality. 

Fowls fed on whole corn remain perfectly well for a period 
of sixty-three days, but when they are fed on the inside of 
the corn kernel they come down with the disease as when 
fed on wheat bread. 

Tests were run to determine the effects of a starvation diet. 
Two fowls were started on normal diet, then the amount was 
gradually cut down, until after about twenty-one days the 
birds were receiving nothing but water. One fowl went for 
thirty-eight days without food and the other for fifty-six 
days. In neither fowl was there a typical picture of paraly- 
sis; the symptoms presented appeared to be due to muscular 
weakness. 

Wellman and Bass produced polyneuritis in fowls by feed- 
ing in a like manner, sago, boiled white potato, corn starch, 
wheat flour, corn grits, boiled sweet potato, cream of wheat, 
puffed rice and macaroni. 

It is apparent according to the work of Hoist that pigeons 
fed on biscuits baked of rye flour, either with or without 
yeast, do not develop polyneuritis, while pigeons fed on wmeat 
bread do. 

The following case report gives the clinical picture : 

During the first ten days the fowl ate heartily of diet, and ap- 
peared at all times active and well, except for more or less diarrhea. 
On the eleventh day the fowl began to refuse feed and on the fifteenth 
day forced feeding commenced. The first symptom of paralysis was 
noted on the twenty-second day. On this day the fowl was slightly 
unsteady and stood teetering forward and backward on its toes; 
when forced to walk it did so with a high step pushing the feet well 
forward as if trying to brush something from in front of it. Three 
days later a slight head tremor was noted, and the bird walked with 
a decidedly staggering gait, but did not fall. Next day both wings 
drooped, it walked with great difficulty, and every now and then the 
joint formed by the tibia and the metatarsus seemed to give way and 
the fowl suddenly assumed a squatting position. It remained in the 
cage squatted most of the time on the flexed tarsometatarsus, with 
the extremities also flexed. On the following day the bird could not 
stand. The comb was cyanotic, there was convulsive movements 
now and then with retraction of the head. Next day it was pros- 
trated. The duration of the disease was six days. 



198 POULTRY DISEASES 

PARALYSIS OF THE AUDITORY NERVE OF THE FOWL 
Anatomy of the Parts 

It may be well first to give the origin and distribution of 
the auditory nerve before taking up the disease of the same. 

In the fowl the facial (seventh pair of cranial nerves) and 
the auditory or eighth pair, are so intimately associated, it 
appears well to give the origin and distribution of both at 
the same time. 

The facial nerve originates, with the auditory, from the 
cerebellum. It divides into three parts, the first probably 
from the complex ganglion with the posterior roots of the 
auditory. This root belongs to the somatic sensory group of 
nerves. From this same group originates the auditory which 
spreads out into the cochlea and takes the impression of sound. 
This nerve is short and thick, and at the point where it loses 
its medullary covering on entering the cochlea there is de- 
veloped a ganglion. This ganglion is similar to the spinal 
ganglion. 

The second part originates by one root which is located 
medially and ventrally from the deeper ganglion cells. Some 
of the fibers from this root constitute the vestibular branches 
and accompany the auditory and supply the anterior part of 
the ear labyrinth and semicircular canals. The larger part of 
the fibers of this trunk make up the intermediate part of the 
facial. The geniculate ganglion is formed at their fusion. 
The sympathetic sphenopalatine nerve emerges from this gan- 
glion, coming out of the aqueduct of Fallopius. 

The third part is called the portia dura and is the main 
facialis. It is located opposite the auditorius intermedins. 
Its roots may be traced to the complex ganglion, from which 
they take a ventral direction. 

Paralysis of the Cochlear Nerve 

The paralysis of the cochlear nerve, the true organ of hear- 
ing, may be a congenital defect and has been observed in am- 
biotic animals. It is due to a defective condition of the spinal 
ganglion with resulting degeneration of the organs of Corti. 
Paralysis of the nerve may also be caused by inflammatory 
changes in the internal ear or intracranial disease in the 
neighborhood of the medulla oblongata. It has been observed 
as a symptom in coccidiosis and also in fowl plague. 

Paralysis of the Vestibular Nerve 

This condition is frequently observed in birds. It is often 
caused by inflammation of the middle or internal ear. It has 
been observed in fowl pest. It is also brought about in 



DISEASES OP THE BRAIN AND NERVES 199 



earies of the petrous temporal bone. Concussion of the brain 
and hemorrhage of the internal ear is also a causative fac- 
tor. Certain disease conditions of the cerebellum and medulla 
oblongata may cause an interruption in the conductivity of 
the vestibular nerve. In pigeons it is observed in contagious 
meningitis. 

The symptoms of bilateral disease of the cochlear nerve are 
easily recognized owing to the fact that there is complete deaf- 
ness. If it is unilateral the symptoms may be so meager that 
its presence entirely escapes the observation of the owner. 

Unilateral paralysis of the vestibular nerve is evidenced 
in all species by the head being held in an oblicpie manner, 
the diseased side being held lower. The head may be held 
in a position under the 
front part of the body with 
the lower part of the head 
turned back towards the 
sound side. This turning 
of the head may be slight 
or 45° to 75°, but in birds 
it may be as much as 180° : 
or even more. If the head 
be carried under the body 
the dorsum, of the cranium 
may touch the ground. 
There is frequently a hori- 
zontal rolling of the eye- 
balls towards the sound 
side. There may be diffi- 
culty in taking food, and 
in birds it is commonly 
quite impossible. If the 
disease is bilateral it closely 
resembles cerebellar ataxia, 
only the symptoms are limited to the head and neck. 

If the paralysis is due to an injury, the disease as a rule 
is not permanent and the symptoms all disappear in a few 
days or weeks. If the condition is due to pathological changes 
in the auditory nerve or nerves the symptoms are persistent, 
depending on the nature of the primary cause. The bird 
may, after a while, die. 

In traumatic causes the bird needs to be kept in a quiet 
place free from annoyances, and, if necessary, artificial feed- 
ing is resorted to. If there has been an injury and hemor- 
rhage takes place in the tissues, surgical interference may 
be indicated. In cases in pigeons due to contagious menin- 




Fig. 71. Paralysis of the Auditory Nerve 
of a Silver Campine Hen. 



200 POULTRY DISEASES 

gitis an attempt should be made to isolate the diseased bird 
and carry out thorough disinfection. Calomel should be given 
to the bird and cold water packs applied to the head. 

Cases of Vestibular Paralysis 

Figure 71 shows a picture of a Silver Campine hen which was 
sent to the laboratory. This hen had the run of the farm with the 
balance of the flock. She was about two years old. 

There was nothing in the history of the case to indicate whether 
the hen had met with an accident or had a diseased condition of the 
auditory nerve. The bird, as is shown in the cut, held her head un- 
der the body with the top of the head resting on the floor. A 
thorough examination of the external auditory canals did not re- 
veal any signs of violence or parasitism. Eating was accomplished 
with difficulty and the bird died after suffering in this manner for 
a period of sixty days. 

A second case in which the bird showed similar symptoms and in 
which examination of the auditory canals and skull was negative, 
after a period of five weeks, gradually showed signs of improvement 
and finally recovered. 



SECTION XIV 

BACTERIA OF THE INTESTINAL TRACT OF 
CHICKENS 

The bacterial flora of the intestinal tract of birds has been 
receiving considerable study during recent years. The ali- 
mentary tract of man and animals contains many millions of 
bacteria, of many varieties. Many of these are constantly 
present and constitute what is known as the normal intestinal 
flora. In the newly-born child or animal the intestinal tract 
is sterile, that is, it contains no germs, but as soon as it par- 
takes of food and water the intestines are seeded and ever 
after contain bacteria in large numbers. The same can be 
said of the chick. 

Some of these germs are not harmful, but give off fer- 
ments similar to the cells of the accessory glands of diges- 
tion; these ferments may aid in splitting up foodstuffs and 
in preparing it for absorption. Ferments of this kind have 
been called organized ferments, but we have now learned 
that such ferments do not in any way differ in action from 
those secreted by the stomach, pancreas or intestinal glands. 
It is their ferments, and not the germs themselves, that cause 
the splitting up of the food nutrients. 

Some of the bacteria are at times injurious, and oftentimes 
pathogenic organisms gain access to the intestinal tract and 
may produce disease, if the bird is susceptible. There are 
also, at times, protozoa present, especially those belonging to 
the coccidia group. 

The following organisms have been found in the normal 
mouth and pharynx of the fowl : Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus 
coli communis, Bacillus lactis bulgaricus, Bacillus viscosus, 
Bacillus cloacae, Pneumococcus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Sta- 
phylococcus pyogenes aureus, Micrococcus magnus, Micrococ- 
cus tetragenes, Pseudo pyocyaneus, Bacillus prodigiosus. 

The following germs have been found as normal inhabitants 
of the duodenum, or first portion of the intestines, of birds : 

Bacillus mesenterial, Bacillus subtilis. Bacillus ramosus, 
Bacillus sereus, Bacillus asterosporus, Bacillus fusiformis, 
Bacillus coli communis, Streptococcus lacticus, Bacillus lactis 
aerogenes, Bacillus prodigiosus, Sarcina aurantiaca, Sarcina 
lutea, Sarcina ventriculus, Clathodrix asteroides, Micrococcus 
rosettaceus, brown, white, and green molds, coral and white 
yeasts, Micrococcus roseus and Clamydothrix ferrugenes. 



202 POULTRY DISEASES 

In the third portion of the intestines, or ileum, may be 
found green and white molds, Cladothrix asteroides, Bacillus 
cloacae, Bacillus ramosus, Sarcina lutea and Sarcina auran- 
tiaca, Staphylococcus pyogenes albus and citreus, Staphylo- 
coccus cereus albus, Bacillus fluorescens liquefaciens, Micro- 
coccus asterosporus, Streptococcus lacticus, Bacillus laotis 
aerogenes, Bacillus coli communis, Bacillus prodigiosus, Bacil- 
lus mesentericus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus megatherium, Bacil- 
lus fusiformis, Bacillus subtilis. 

Practically the same microorganisms are to be found in 
the cecum. The same may be said of the cloaca, with possi- 
bly the addition of the Bacillus aerogenes capsulatus and 
Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. 

It must be remembered that the intestinal flora is prob- 
ably not the same for all birds, as different surroundings or 
environment, different sources of food, as well as different 
food and water, play a part in carrying germs to the intesti- 
nal tract. 



SECTION XV 
THE EGG 

COMPOSITION 

An average-sized lien egg weighs about two ounces, of 
which eleven per cent is shell, thirty-two per cent yolk, and 
fifty-seven per cent white. The principal chemical constitu- 
ents of the egg are as follows: Ash (mineral matter) nine 
per cent; fat (hydrocarbon) nine and three-tenths per cent; 
proteids (nitrogenous matter) eleven and nine-tenths per 
cent; and water, sixty-five and five-tenths per cent. 

Composition of the Egg Shell 

Gadow gives the composition of the egg shell as follows : 

Per Cent. 

Calcium carbonate 91.44 

Magnesium carbonate 2.03 

Calcium phosphate 70 

Organic phosphate 4.92 

Water 73 

Loss (or traces of other salts) 18 

Total 100.00 

ANIMAL PARASITES IN EGGS 

Reports have been made that worms have been found in 
eggs. The author has not had the good fortune to examine 
any of these worms for the purpose of classification, but it is 
probable that the Ascaris inflexa or Heterakis papulosa and 
other round worms, normally inhabiting the intestines, may 
find their way up the egg canal and be incorporated with the 
egg as it is formed. By referring to Fig. 2, it will be seen that 
a live worm, possessing power of movement as these worms 
do, passing into the cloaca (16) from the rectum (15), can 
pass up the egg canal (23) and thus be incorporated in the 
albumen of the egg, as it is formed around the yolk. These 
conditions are rare. 

BACTERIA OF EGGS 

Several investigators have, of recent years, devoted much 
time to the investigation of the bacterial flora of eggs. It is 



204 POULTRY DISEASES 

needless to say that all understand that the spoiling of eggs 
is due to the multiplication of bacteria in them, when the egg 
is brought under proper temperature. The cold storage of 
eggs holds them under conditions unfavorable for the rapid 
growth of these bacteria. When eggs are kept cold the bac- 
teria within them are in a more or less dormant state and 
hence by reason of this retardation of germ growth the eggs 
keep longer. 

Eggs can be successfully desiccated (dried) and such pow- 
dered product is on the market. The moisture in it is so re- 
duced that germs do not grow and, like any other dried prod- 
uct, it keeps well. This desiccated product retains the quali- 
ties of the fresh egg for a long time. One pound represents 
about three and one-half pounds of raw egg or an amount 
obtained from thirty eggs. The egg contains considerable fat 
and because of this the dried product gradually undergoes a 
change at warm temperatures, much as butter does, finally 
giving off a rancid, fishlike odor. 

It is not probable that the yolk or ovum becomes infected 
while it is being formed in the ovary, unless the ovary, from 
which it develops, be diseased. It has been shown that birds 
that have had white diarrhea while chicks and recovered, 
grown to maturity, and commenced laying, have diseased 
ovaries, ovaries which harbor the Bacterium pullorum, the 
cause, or at least one of the causes, of white diarrhea, and 
this germ is incorporated within the yolk of the egg. Chicks 
which hatch from such infected eggs develop white diarrhea 
soon after hatching. This is an important means of spread- 
ing this disease and one before which sanitation is powerless. 

Ordinarily the internal organs, as the ovaries, kidneys, 
spleen, etc., are sterile unless diseased, as just stated. How- 
ever, Conradi maintains that he has found bacteria in these 
supposedly sterile organs in seventy-two cases out of one 
hundred sixty-two. 

The germs that have been alluded to under intestinal flora 
of chickens can easily find their way into the cloaca and up 
the oviduct, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The yolk or ovum when 
fully developed in the ovary is delivered, in a similar man- 
ner, as in higher animal life, into the first portion of the 
oviduct (uterus), which at its free extremity is rather fun- 
nel shaped and is called the ostium infundibulum. This egg 
canal which can be likened to the uterus of higher animals 
is about eighteen to twenty inches long and is lined with 
tubular glands which secrete the albumen, and in the pos- 
terior portion the shell. This material is formed from foods 
carried by the blood, which is very abundant in these walls. 



THE EGG 205 

As the egg traverses the cloaca in being passed out (layed) 
it is exposed to contamination by microorganisms which may 
be taken up into the oviduct with the male element (sperma- 
tozoa) after copulation. Bacteria are not so common in non- 
fertilized eggs as they are in fertilized eggs, a fact that sup- 
ports this theory. 

Many of the organisms found in eggs are nonmotile, so 
that they must find their way up this canal by extension by 
growth or be carried mechanically. Among the bacteria that 
have been found in eggs are : Micrococcus nonliquefaciens, 
Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and albus, Bacillus prodigio- 
sus, Bacillus violaceus, Bacillus putridis, Bacillus mesentericus, 
Bacillus fecalis alcaligenes. Bacillus putridus nonliquefaciens, 
Streptococci, Micrococcus leteus, Micrococcus candicans, Mi- 
crococcus flavus tardigradus. 

The colon bacillus is ever present in the intestinal tract of 
chickens and is found on the outer shell, yet contamination 
of the egg content by it does not occur. This has led some 
to think that there may be a substance present in the egg 
canal bactericidal for this germ and the matter is being in- 
vestigated at present. 

Poppe claims that among those germs which find their way 
through the pores of the egg shell after it is layed is the 
Bacillus paratyphosis, the cause of paratyphoid in man. 

BACTERIA IN FRESH EGGS 

Rettger of Storr 's Agricultural experiment station in exam- 
ining a total of 1,894 yolks from fresh eggs in the months 
from February to September found 7.7 per cent contained 
germs other than the Bact. pullorum and over 16 per cent 
contained the Bact. pullorum. 

A total of three years, including all months, and a total of 
3,510 yolks of fresh eggs, 9.5 per cent contained bacteria, not 
including the Bact. pullorum. Nearly 20 per cent contained 
the Bact, pullorum. 

Of 105 tested with the fermentation tube for B. coh, all 
gave negative results. 

Of the whites of 582 eggs examined, only 1.2 per cent con- 
tained bacteria. 

Lanere placed eergs, after sterilizing with corrosive sublimate 
and ether, in bouillon cultures of B. coli, B. typhosis, B. para- 
typhosis, B. enteritidis, and B. botulinus. The B. typhosis 
required two days to enter the white and three days to pene- 
trate the yolk at 37° C. The B. coli may reach the white 
in one and the yolk in five days. 

The secretions of the glands of the mucous lining of the 



206 POULTRY DISEASES 

oviduct have some bactericidal action as well as the egg white 
itself. 

Eggs that have been incubated artificially for three weeks 
remain relatively free from bacterial decomposition, pro- 
vided they were fresh and clean when placed in the incuba- 
tor. 



SECTION XVI 



MALFORMATIONS 

Malformations among birds are occasionally observed. A 
complete discussion of the dozens of various forms of mal- 
formations that may be found cannot be given here for lack 
of space, but a few facts will be given. 

In higher animal life, including man, malformations have 
been attributed to the following causes : 

External mechanical influences, such as falls, blows, or 
severe shock of any kind, by affecting the general health of 
the pregnant female, may have power to arrest, retard, or 
otherwise disturb the normal development of the embryo or 
fetus. 

The so-called spontaneous amputation, in utero, by a coil 
of the umbilical cord finding its way around a part of the 
fetus and causing 
pressure and am- 
putation, cannot 
hold with chickens 
nor will acute and 
chronic placentitis, 
causing adhesions, 
hardly hold for 
birds. 

The percentage 
o f malformations 
in the human fam- 
ily is one to three 
or four thousand 
births; in the low- 
er animals and 
birds the percent- 
age is much small- 
er. 

During the for- 
mation of the fetus 
an arrest of devel- 
opment of the bud which forms the wing may result in a mal- 
formed wing; the same can be said of any other part, as the 
leg, beak, etc. 

If the arrangement of the groups of cells during develop- 
ment does not follow the normal type, then malformations, as 




Fig. 72. Monster Chick (dipygus tetrabrachius. 
Showing two bodies, four legs, four wings and one 
head. 



208 



POULTRY DISEASES 



atresia, imperforate anus, or other natural openings may re- 
sult ; abnormal position of viscera, a failure of the closure of 
the abdominal or thoracic plates may take place. 

The germ or embryo is first developed as a manifold mem- 
branous expansion, the free margins of which incline towards 
each other, and eventually meet to form two cavities. A 
failure to meet results in malformation. Fusion of parts may 
also take place. 

Those malformations in which there are supernumerary 
parts or duplications of almost an entire body are sometimes 
called composite or compound malformations and monsters. 

Hermaphroditism is a com- 
plete duplication of both male 
and female genital organs; 
i. e., a single individual pos- 
sessing" both male and female 
genital organs. Pseudo-her- 
maphroditism is a condition 
in which the duplication is 
only partial. It is desirable 
that more scientific observa- 
tions be made along these 
lines, in birds, and recorded, 
The double-yoked eggs, in 
cases where two ova have 
been delivered into the ovi- 
duct at the same time, and 
both being surrounded by al- 
bumen and finally one shell, 
have been supposed to pro- 
duce double monsters, but 
there is a scientific record in 
which eighty such eggs were 
incubated (all from the do- 
mestic fowl) and in each sep- 
arate twins were produced, 
in some both males, in others 
females, and in others one 
of each sex. In one case out 
single chick and the other a 




Fig. 73. Polymelus (natural size). 
A. the two supernumerary legs. 



of the eighty one yolk developed 
double monster. 

Thompson made a study of a double embryo in the egg of a goose, 
which had been incubated five days. This study showed a double 
primitive \'. trace is actually formed on a single blastodermic mem- 
brane proceeding from a single vitellus and vitelline membrane. 
This same work has been corroborated by others so fortunate as to 
find these monstrosities in early stages of development. 

Compound monsters proceed from single germs which have sub- 
sequently undergone different degrees of dichotomy. They are 
governed in their development by certain fixed and invariable laws 
among which are unity of sex, homologous fusion and bilateral 
symmetry. In each case there is single sexuality. 

The various forms of duplex development are determined by the 



MALFORMATIONS 



209 



extent to which the primitive trace is cleft, and also by the limita- 
tions of the dichotomy to the cephalic or caudal extremity of the 
neural axis. Either or both extremities may become bifid. The cepha- 
lic or head extremity may become bifid alone and a double head, or 
still further bifid and the posterior extremities single or the pos- 
terior extremity become bifid and the anterior single. 

Figs. 72 and 73 illustrate a duplication of the legs. The rudimen- 
tary legs are perfect, but not so well developed as the other two. 
This is polymelus. 

UMBILICAL HERNIA OF THE BABY CHICK 

We have examined many chicks in cases where they have 
died after partly pipping out of the shell. The shells were 







Fig. 74. Umbilical Hernia of a Baby Chick. 
1, portion of egg sac not included; 2, umbilical ring. 



carefully removed and an examination, in many, showed a 
rupture of the umbilicus at its point of attachment. At this 
point the abdominal wall is very thin, and is not reinforced 
by elastic tissue, as in quadrupeds, and if the membranes 
become very dry and tough, the straining by the chick in its 
efforts to free itself may prove fatal. Fig. 74 shows a 
hernia as a result of excessive straining. No. 1 is the ab- 
dominal yolk sac which has been forced through the umbilicus, 
No. 2. 



SECTION XVII 
FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA 

FRACTURES 

Fractures or broken bones among birds in the poultry 
yards are of rather common occurrence, especially where 
birds are allowed the run of the farm or ranch, as is the usual 
custom. 

REPAIR OF THE FRACTURE OF BONES OF THE DOMES- 
TIC FOWL 

This work is divided into three groups, as follows : First, 
the structure and development of the bones of the domestic 
fowl j second, the kinds of fractures and the reparative proc- 
esses; third, means of control of the bird and care of the 
fracture. 

I. The Structure of Bones 

In the gross study of bones we find that in the limbs as the 
legs and wings they form levers which have to sustain weight 
of the body and confer the power of locomotion, either during 
walking, running or flying. The femur, tibia and humerus are 
examples. The shaft of the long bone is narrowed and con- 
tracted, which affords greater space for the bellies of the 
muscles. The extremities are generally somewhat expanded 
for greater convenience of motor connection, for the purpose 
of articulation and to afford a bony surface for muscular at- 
tachment. Some long bones are slightly curved, thus afford- 
ing greater strength. 

Where there is required great strength and at the same 
time motion it is divided into a number of small bones. As 
an example we have the patella and the two carpal bones. 

Where the principal requirement is that of extensive pro- 
tection or the need of large bony surface for the attachment 
of muscles, we find osseous structures expanded into flat bony 
plates, as is the case in the skull and pelvis. 

The respiratory apparatus of the domestic fowl consists of 
two lungs, which occupy the upper thoracic region, pushing 
out between the ribs, and is made up of a series of air tubes 
and air sacs. Some of the bronchi or air tubules communi- 
cate with air sacs or bladder-like structures located at the 
anterior thoracic region, others at the diaphragmatic region. 



212 POULTRY DISEASES 

Many of the bones of the fowl, as the head, vertebrae and 
humerus, contain air cavities. The air sacs send extensions 
into these cavities. 

Bones of fowls nearly always develop from a connective 
tissue foundation. The inorganic substance of the bone is 
compressed in or between the fibers of the connective tissue, 
while the cells of the latter are transformed into bone cells. 
Between fibers are calcified bone cells, each of which rests 
in a cavity of the matrix, called lacuna. 

The bone cells have processes that anastomose with the 
processes of other cells. They lie in special canals known as 
canaliculi. 

The histological structure of the bone of the domestic fowl 
is similar to that of mammals, with the exceptions given 
above, and the reader is referred to any histology for further 
study. 

II. Reparative Processes of Bone 

A fracture of bone may be defined as a sudden solution of 
continuity in a bone. The cause of fractures in a fowl are: 
first, injury or trauma, receiving a blow as from a stick or 
stone or bemg stepped upon by a large animal, as a horse 
or cow, or by the infliction of a gun shot wound; second, 
muscular action. Bones are most resistant to traction, next 
to pressure and less resistant to flexion or bending and least 
of all to torsion. External violence may be direct or indi- 
rect. In fracture from direct violence the bone is broken at 
or near the spot where violence is applied. As a rule the 
soft structures surrounding the fracture are more or less 
injured and more serious results may follow than in frac- 
tures by indirect violence. In this kind of fractures the bone 
may be comminuted or fissured and perhaps driven into vital 
organs, as the liver or lungs, if the fracture be near these 
regions, or into the brain if in the cranial region. 

External violence is the most common cause of fracture in 
the fowl. The most common bones that are fractured are 
those of the legs and next those of the wings. 

Fractures may be classified as follows: first, simple frac- 
tures—those breaks in the continuity of the bone where the 
skin is not broken; second, compound, also called open, or 
complicated fractures — those where the break is accompanied 
by a break through the skin and soft parts extending to the 
seat of fracture. 

A series of studies was made in this laboratory of repaired 
fractures of fowls of long standing, after which a series was 
made of the nature and rapidity of repair of fractured bones 



FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA 213 

of the domestic fowl. The birds were chloroformed and the 
bones fractured and set while the birds were still under anes- 
thesia. The metatarsus and ulna were selected. The appli- 
ance that was used to hold the bones in place was cotton, one 
inch cloth bandage, wooden splints and glue. At the end of 
each experiment the bird was chloroformed and the bone 
removed. After a physical examination, the bone was sec- 
tioned longitudinally, photographed and the lesion of one-half 
cut out and placed in ten per cent hydrochloric acid solution 
for forty-eight hours for decalcification, and then passed 



Z 

■■"•': 




Fig. 75. Sections Through Bones at Different Stages of Fractures. 
1, five days standing; 2 and 3, thirteen days standing. Note the provisional 
plug and provisional callus. 

through three changes of absolute alcohol : then alcohol and 
ether equal parts; then embedded in celloidin and sectioned. 
The sections were stained in hematoxylon and eosin and clari- 
fied in oil of cedar or beechwood creosote, and mounted in 
balsam for microscopic study. 

In a study of a fracture of the metatarsus of a single comb Rhode 
Island Red of eight days' standing, the following picture presented 
itself. The gross specimen showed a mottled reddish white zone in 
the region of the fracture indicating that immediately following the 
fracture there was an extravasation of blood which had collected 



214 POULTRY DISEASES 

around and between the fragments and between the ends of the com- 
pact portion of the bone and had also invaded, to a certain extent, 
the marrow cavity The fluid at this time did not give evidence of 
advance organization and was rather jelly-like allowing the frac- 
tured ends of the bone to fall apart by slight traction. There was 
present the initial hyperemia of repair. This hyperemia was most 
marked in the periosteum. Leukocytes had invaded this part, as 
shown by microscopic examination. Proliferative changes had taken 
place in the connective tissue and in fact this was observed in cases 
of only forty-eight hours' standing. The most active cellular multi- 
plication was in connection with the fibrous structure of the perios- 
teum. This forms the germinative or reparative tissue from which 
arises the osteoblasts. The nature of the new formed structure was 
that of connective tissue and is plainly shown in the photomicro- 
graphs. The first picture shows the commencement of this organi- 
zation into trabecular-like arrangement forming the periosteal callus 
and the provisional plug. It can be seen that this had been formed 
and poured out from the periosteum. This field showed many fibro- 
blasts and was packed with osteoblasts and osteoclasts and in still 
other fields of the trabeculae a homogeneous matrix with formative 
bone cells in their lacunae. The repair was apparently one of intra- 
membranous bone formation with islands of newly formed bone at 
the end of the fifth day. 

Another study of a fractured metatarsus of thirteen days' standing 
was in a one-year-old single comb White Leghorn hen, that was or 
low vitality and the reparative processes were more tardy than in 
section of a similar case in which the bird was in a good state of 
health. After the metatarsus was removed it could, with consider- 
able force, be made to spring, which was not the case with the latter 
specimen. Both birds showed the reparative processes far enough 
advanced to have the cast removed with safety. 

Prom these two studies it is rather indicative that repair in the 
bone of the domestic fowl is quite rapid and that two weeks is ample 
time to allow the bandage or cast to remain on. The illustrations, 
both photographic and photomicrographic, show the provisional, 
intermediary calluses and the provisional plug. 

III. The Treatment of Fractures and Care of the Bird 

In simple or so-called subcutaneous fracture of bones the 
fragments of the bone should be placed in perfect apposi- 
tion. The normal shape of the bone should be restored as far 
as possible. The loose arrangement of the muscles in the 
fowls makes this an easy task. 

The next step is to apply an apparatus holding the parts 
firmly in place while the reparative processes are being ac- 
complished. In applying the apparatus, circulation must 
not be interfered with and nerves must be safeguarded. After 
the setting is complete the bird must be provided with a 
clean coop and a grassy run where other birds cannot inter- 
fere. Good food and water should be provided and an occa 
sional examination made to determine if all is well with the 
bone undergoing repair. 

If the fracture is on a feathered part, the feathers that are 



FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA 215 

in the region to be manipulated should be removed. Next 
apply a thin' layer of cotton, carefully holding the fractured 
parts in the proper position; then apply about three thin, 
narrow splints of wood of proper length in such a manner 
that they cannot chafe the leg and do injury to the skin. 
Next apply a one-inch cotton bandage, at the same time satu- 
rating it with glue. In a few hours the liquid glue will be- 
come hard and the parts will be firmly held in position. 

At the end of fourteen or fifteen days, carefully remove 
the bandage. Confine the bird for a few days longer and 
then allow it to run in its accustomed quarters. 

As to feed, for the first two or three days after injury give 
easily digested food, such as bread soaked in milk or wet 
mash. Later some grain may be fed, but only two light feeds 
should be given while the bird is in confinement. Pure, clean 
water should be kept before the bird at all times. 

WOUNDS 

Birds possess a high immunity to pyogenic infection (the 
germs that ordinarily infect the wounds of animals) ; and 
wounds, whether accidental or surgical, unless very serious, 
heal with great rapidity. The degree of tolerance of infec- 
tion that the peritoneum of birds possesses is probably not 
equalled by the peritoneum of any other domestic animal. 
For example, birds rarely die from infection after caponiz- 
ing. Death when it occurs as a result of this operation is 
ordinarily due to hemorrhage. Man and animals (except the 
dog) survive abdominal operations only when done under 
aseptic precautions. 

Wounds should be cleansed with antiseptics as in mam- 
mals. Full strength iodin favors healing and is an excellent 
antiseptic. This is to be applied after the wound has been 
cleansed with water. 

ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF THE FOWL 

Chloroform (Squibbs), may be administered by means of the 
carton a one-fourth-pound bottle is packed in. A small hole 
is cut in the bottom of the box to admit air and a small 
pledget of cotton placed in the box to absorb the chloroform. 

The hen is very susceptible to chloroform, quickly going 
under its influence and quickly coming out again. Care 
needs to be exercised lest too much be given and the bird die 
from an overdose. In administering the chloroform the head 
of the bird is first thrust into the box. The bird usually 



216 



POULTRY DISEASES 



struggles very little and is soon completely under its influ- 
ence. The cover is then removed or held one or more inches 
from the nostrils as indicated by appearance of the bird. If 
an overdose be given, open the mouth and resort to artificial 
respiration as with other animals ; many are thus revived. 




Fig. 76. Poultry Operating Table. 



Note is made of respirations and eye reflexes as in anes- 
thetizing other animals. 

After the limbs are entirely relaxed an assistant holds the 
bird on its back or it may be tied to the operating table. 

A poultry operating table has been designed by the writer. 
This table consists of a top (a) two feet wide and 
thirty inches long. This table is provided with four- 
inch cross-pieces as shown in the cut (c) which are located 



FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA 217 

about half way from the top to the ground. These cross- 
pieces are provided with two awning hooks on either side. 
Holes are bored through the top at suitable locations. The 
loop of the string is run through the hole on its respective 
side and over the legs or base of the wings (h) and the legs 
and wings drawn down snugly to the top and the free por- 
tions of the string wrapped around the hook and given a half 
hitch. 

INJURY TO THE STERNUM 

If chicks are allowed to roost on small limbs of trees or 
sharp poles before the breastbone becomes sufficiently ossified 




Fig. 77. Injury to Sternum, a Result of Roosting on Some Sharp 
Object While Quite Immature. 

there is likely to be a dent or curvature of the free margin. 
Fig. 77 illustrates this kind of an injury. The dressed car- 
cass from such a bird would bring at least two cents less per 
pound on the large city markets than if the breast was straight 
and presented a pleasing appearance. 

CURVATURE OF THE SPINE 

Eggs should lie on their sides in the incubator. If allowed 
to stand on end in the last days of incubation there is 



218 



POULTRY DISEASES 



likely to be some deformity. Curvatures of the spine have 
been noted to appear suddenly in young, developing birds. 

Injury to the Spine. — Often, large animals, step upon or 
knock over fowls in walking. This may result in broken bones, 
internal hemorrhage as a result of crushing, and injury to the 
spine or other parts. 

GANGRENE 

There are two kinds of gangrene, moist and dry. Death of 
a part en masse constitutes gangrene and death cell by cell on 

a surface constitutes ulcer- 
ation. If the part which 
dies has poured out in it 
much serum, there is likely 
to result infection and ne- 
crosis with gas formation. 
This gas is very offensive. 
If the part is poorly sup- 
plied with blood and there 
is no serum secreted there 
may be a dry gangrene ; 
that is, the part mummi- 
fies, does not give off an 
offensive odor and becomes 
dry and hard. Dry gan- 
grene is likely to occur in 
dependent parts, as in the 
illustration, in the foot of 
a turkey. 

FROZEN COMBS 

The degree of cold at 
which the wattles and comb 
freeze depends upon many 
factors. The humidity in 
the house and the physical 
condition of the bird and 
its heart action are the 
most important factors. A 
weak heart means a slug- 
gish circulation and the 
more sluggishly the blood flows the slower it passes through 
the dependent parts and the quicker the comb freezes. 

Wattles usually freeze sooner than combs because when the 
bird drinks it usually gets its wattles wet. 

Birds in open front houses can stand lower temperatures 




Fig. 78. Gangrene of the Foot of a 

Turkey. 
Commenced with fluctuating abscesses be- 
tween the toes which when lanced gave off 
an offensive odor and seemed somewhat 
gaseous. Later the parts became in a state 
of dry gangrene. A smear from the pus 
showed many eosinophiles, lymphocytes and 
polymorpholeukocytes. 



FRACT LIKES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA 219 

than when the house is tightly closed, because the more free 
circulation of air allows the watery vapor from the lungs of 
the birds to disseminate more rapidly and humidity is les- 
sened. 

When wattles and comb are frozen, remove the bird to a 
warmer room but not one heated by a stove. Apply carbolized 
vaselin twice a day. 

BROKEN BEAK 

The beak often becomes broken through fighting or some 
other violence. Such a fowl needs attention. It may starve 
through its inability to pick up feed or its beak may grow 
deformed. 

The bird should be given feed in such a manner that it can 
easily pick it up, or the new and developing horny material 
may become injured. Mash, both wet and dry, given in a cup. 
is recommended. The cup should not be allowed to become so 
nearly empty that the bird strikes the bottom with its beak. 

Often chicks are hatched with crossed beaks making the 
act of prehension a difficult one. 



SECTION XVIII 

CASTRATION OF THE BIRD (CAPONIZING) 

There are great possibilities in the more extended practice 
of capon production. The fact that there is a growing de- 
mand, making their value as a meat product superior to that 
of the cock or cockerel, and the fact that they bring about 
thirty cents a pound while the uncastrated bird brings only 
about fifteen cents, together with the fact that they become 
very much larger, makes this phase of poultry husbandry a 
productive and remunerative one. 

The male bird after the removal of his reproductive organs 
loses his masculine appearance, becomes sluggish and gains 
weight rapidly as a result of his inactivity. 

From the loss of that internal secretion manufactured in 
the testes we note that there is the same difference which is 
observed in other animals under the same treatment. The 
development of the gelding as compared to the horse and of 
the barrow as compared to the boar, are some concrete ex- 
amples. 

The same improvement in meat is noted in the castrated or 
caponized bird as in the steer over the meat of the bull or the 
meat of the barrow compared with that of the boar, hence 
capon raising is highly desirable and if properly managed is 
a profitable undertaking. 

A capon of the Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte or Rhode Island 
Red breed should weigh fully seven or eight pounds when 
eight months of age. 

Light capons are produced from the Rocks, "Wyandottes 
and Reds while the heavy capons are produced from the 
Brahmas and Cochins. 

The cockerel should be caponized when he weighs from one 
to one and one-half pounds, which will probably be about the 
eighth to the tenth week. 

If the birds are allowed to become too old before operation 
the testes are found to be very large, the removal of which 
may prove fatal to the bird. If the birds are hatched from 
March to May the operation could be performed in the months 
of June to September and with proper feeding and care these 
birds should then be ready to market from December to 
March. 

The equipment needed to perform this operation is a table 



222 POULTRY DISEASES 

provided with means of confining the bird on it and instru- 
ments consisting of a knife or scalpel with which to make 
the incision or cut through the abdominal wall, a hook for 
tearing through the peritoneum or lining of the abdominal 
cavity, air sac walls and at times through the mesentery and 
a spreader for holding the wound open while the removal 
of the testes is accomplished. 

The intestines may be pushed to one side by aid of the end 
of a scalpel. 

An improvised table may be made by taking a barrel, 
using two cords and two weights of sufficient size to hold the 
bird down, usually about the size of a half brick. The cords 
are doubled and one is looped around the legs, the other 
around the base of the wings and a half brick tied to the free 
ends as shown in Fig. 79. 

A poultry operating table designed by the writer consists 
of a top two feet wide and thirty inches long. This table is 
provided with four-inch cross pieces, as shown, (Fig. 76) 
which are located about half way from the top to the ground 
and provided with two awning hooks on either side. Holes 
are bored through the top at suitable locations. The loop of 
each cord is run through the hole on its respective side and 
over the leers or base of the wings and the legs and wings 
drawn snugly down to the top and the free end of the cord 
wrapped around the hook and given a half hitch. 

If the bird or birds are to be operated on in the forenoon, 
no feed should be given on the previous day. It is also well 
to withhold water as an abundance of water causes more 
hemorrhage, owing to the increased amount of liquid in the 
body tissues. It is rather difficult to accurately and satisfac- 
torily operate when the intestines are gorged with feed. 

The operation is best performed in the bright sunlight un- 
less the operator is provided with a head reflector. 

The instruments should be kept in a shallow pan of anti- 
septic, as creolin, or better, formaldehyd solution. A small 
amount of absorbent cotton should also be at hand.. After the 
bird is confined pluck a few feathers over the field of oper- 
ation (between the last two ribs). It is well to place a small 
chunk of ice in the pan of antiseptic and use the ice water 
in sponging the field of operation. The cold water thus acts 
as an antiseptic as well as causing a contraction of the capil- 
laries of the region and less hemorrhage will result. 

When readv to make the incision pull the skin over so that 
after the incision is made and the skin released the wound 
into the abdominal cavity will be closed. In making- the in- 
cision through the skin the bird will struggle very little. The 



CASTRATION OF THE BIRD 



223 



knife or scalpel should be very sharp and the incision made 
quickly to minimize pain. The upper point of the incision 
should be about one-half inch from the center of the backbone 
or vertebrae. The incision should be about one inch long. As 
a nerve, artery and vein pass along the posterior border of 
each rib, it is necessary not to cut close to the posterior border 
but make the incision close to the anterior border of the 
last rib. 

A second incision is now made in the same wound, this time 
cutting through the abdominal muscles. Care must be exer- 
cised not to cut too deep and injure the internal organs. If 
the peritoneum is not cut this can be broken through by aid 




Fig. 79. Top of Barrel As An Operating Table. 



of the hook and insert the spreaders. Now tear through the 
walls of the air sac and push the intestines to one side and 
the uppermost testis will be in plain view. The testis will 
appear bean-shaped, about one-half inch long and yellowish- 
white in color. It lies close to the body of the vertebrae and 
large abdominal blood vessels, being attached by connective 
tissue. If it is the desire to remove both testes through the 
one opening it is necessary to tear through the mesentery or 
web-like membrane supporting the viscera, care being taken 
not to make the opening too close to its attachment to the 
vertebrae or fatal hemorrhage may take place as a result of 
runturins' these delicate vessels. 

If the opening has been properly made the lower testis will 



224 POULTRY DISEASES 

be in plain view. Always remove the lower one first as, if 
the upper one be removed first, some hemorrhage may take 
place that will make it very hard to find the lower one later. 
For beginners it is better to operate from both sides, each 
time removing the upper one. 

The testicular tissue is very soft and it is necessary to use 
great care to remove all of the tissue. If it is crushed it will 
be very difficult to successfully remove it so that it is neces- 
sary that the operation be done with skill. If care is not 
used often the end of a testis will break off and this part 
remaining makes a "slip." This small particle will furnish 
some internal secretion and the bird can be regarded neither 
as a cockerel nor as a capon. Slips are undesirable. The acci- 
dents may be as follows : on account of the testes lying close 
to the vertebrae in close proximity to the abdominal aorta and 
other large vessels and the capsule of the testis being attached 
to them, too much traction or improperly applying the tractors 
may result in rupture of the vessel and fatal hemorrhage occur 
at once. If the aorta is ruptured there will be noted a hissing 
sound and the bird becomes pale in the face and comb and 
immediately collapses. In this case cut off the head and the 
bird can be used for food. If the bird is allowed to struggle 
after the operation a large vessel already injured by the oper- 
ation may rupture and fatal hemorrhage result. 

After the operation if the incision has been properly made 
no suture is necessary, but if the opening in the abdominal 
wall be large it is well to take one or two sutures with clean, 
sterile cotton or silk thread. 

After the operation is completed remove the bird as care- 
fully as possible and quietly place in a clean coop or run bed- 
ded down with clean straw. Do not allow them in coops or 
inclosures where they can jump upon boxes, perches or fly, 
as they must be kept down on the floor for a few days. 

Supply the birds with clean, fresh water and give them 
ground feed mixed with milk as soon as they are placed in 
their runs. They apparently do not suffer any inconvenience 
from the operation and will eat heartly immediately after. 

On the third day examine each bird to make sure there are 
no "wind puffs" or emphysematous conditions, that is, air 
worked under the skin from the edge of the wound or incision. 
If wind puffs or emphysema is present puncture with clean, 
sterile, sharp knife and allow the air to escape. Birds have 
a great resistance against the common germs of wound infec- 
tion, as staphylococci and streptococci and fatalities from this 
cause are very rare, if at all. 

The wound should be entirely healed in three weeks' time. 



CASTRATION OF THE BIRD 



225 



Fig. 80 shows a Barred Plymouth Rock capon and a Barred 
Plymouth Rock cock. Note difference in head and general 
appearance between the capon and the cock. Capons are 
usually marketed at about ten months of age. 

OVARIECTOMY OF THE PULLET 

An unsexed (spayed) pullet is called a poulard. Spayed 
pullets make more rapid growth without the handicap of egg 
production, at a later stage, and the meat is of improved 
quality and flavor. The spayed pullet takes on some of the 




Fig. 



1, capon; 2, cock. 



appearance of a cockerel. The poulard, like the capon, be- 
comes an outcast and is never known to cackle. 

The pullets are usually operated upon at about the same 
age as in caponizing the cockerel and usually in the late 
spring or early summer. The pullets are prepared in the 
same manner as cockerels for caponizing. The incision is 
made in a similar manner as in the cockerel and the unde- 
veloped egg cluster is found in the pullet in a similar location 
to that of the testicles in the cockerel. With a pair of artery 
forceps grasp the undeveloped oviduct, which will be found 
to be about the size of a broom straw, and remove about one 
inch of this and the ovary. Care must be taken not to cut 
or rupture anv of the large abdominal blood vessels lying 
just back of the ovary and against the vertebrae (a similar 
precaution as in caponizing). The removal of a section of the 



226 POULTRY DISEASES 

oviduct and ovary prevents the further development of the 
egg canal and functionating of the cells of the canal and the 
formation of eggs. Pullets that have begun to develop eggs 
cannot be successfully operated upon. 

The after treatment is the same as for capons. 



SECTION XIX 

FOODS POISONOUS TO FOWLS 

THE ROSE CHAFER 
(Macrodactylus Subspinosus Fab.) 

In the spring of the year when the grapes are in bloom, 
large numbers of the common rose-chafers (rose bugs) often 
appear to feed upon the blossoms and later attacking the 
young and developing fruit and leaves of the plant. The 
beetle is about one-third inch long, of a light brown color 
and is covered by numerous lighter hairs. It is provided with 
long, spiny legs. This bug may also be found on roses, from 
which its common name is derived. It may also be found on 
other shrubs and upon apple, plum, cherry and peach trees. 
When numerous and its preferable food scarce, it may attack 
different grasses and grains. 

The bug passes through the four stages, namely : ova, larva, 
pupa and adult. ■. 

Lamson has shown that when large numbers are eaten by 
small chicks death may occur from their poisonous effects in 
from nine to twenty-four hours. It was found that fifteen 
to twenty rose chafers were sufficient to kill chicks seven days 
old in seven days ; twenty-five to forty -five proved fatal to 
chicks twenty-one days old. Chicks over ten weeks old did 
not die from their effects. 

The symptoms usually appear an hour after the bird eats 
a large quantity of these bugs. The first symptoms noted 
are those of a dozing attitude, the bird becomes weak, and 
finally prostrate and is unable to walk. Some may recover 
from the poison. Occasionally convulsions are noted in the 
dying chick. The poison appears to be a neuro-toxin. Post 
mortem does not reveal any lesions. 

Prophylactic treatment consists of keeping the young chicks 
away from parts of the premises that are infested by these 
bugs. 

ARSENICAL POISONING 

Arsenical poisoning may occur from the birds drinking 
spray mixtures containing paris green or other arsenical com- 
pounds, from eating rat poison, etc. Cases have been brought 
to our attention where birds had been poisoned by eating 
grasshoppers. The grasshoppers had been given arsenic in 



228 POULTRY DISEASES 

bran, and the birds, devouring large numbers of them, became 
ill, and many of them died. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, black comb, dullness, sitting, 
moping and unsteady gait, increasing weakness, and death. 
Judging from the effect of poisonous doses of arsenic on high- 
er animals, the poisoned birds must have been in considerable 
pain, but they did not show it; birds do not manifest pain 
as other animals do. 

Autopsy. — The liver was normal, except that it was a trifle 
dark in color. There were no noticeable changes in the other 
abdominal organs, except the intestinal tract. Upon opening 
the intestines there were noted patches of hemorrhage and 
areas of congestion and inflammation. 

Treatment. — This is scarcely worth while. Demulcent 
drinks, as water in which slippery elm bark has been soaked, 
or even milk, are indicated, after a full dose of castor oil. 

SALT POISONING 

Poisoning among chickens and turkeys from eating common 
salt or drinking brine is quite common and the losses from it 
are large. It may occur from eating salt pork, or fish, or from 
drinking the brine left from freezing ice cream, and in many 
other ways. The symptoms and treatment vary but little from 
arsenical and other poisons. 

Dr. Geo. H. Glover, Colorado, reports a case in which a lady in 
baking a cake made a mistake and used common table salt instead 
of sugar. After the cake was baked and the mistake discovered the 
young housewife concluded to feed it to her nice flock of chickens, 
consisting of twenty-three hens and one rooster. All the birds ex- 
cept the rooster died. 

It has been determined that twenty-five grains of salt per 
pound of live weight is sufficient to produce death in birds. 

OTHER MINERAL POISONS 

Saltpeter poisoning, from eating fertilizer ; phosphorus poi- 
soning, from eating rat poison ; lead and zinc poisoning, from 
eating paint, and copper poisoning, from driking bordeaux 
mixture, have been described; all are infrequent. 

PTOMAIN POISONING 

Limber neck is one of those convenient generic terms which 
poultrymen sometimes apply to any ailment in which the bird 
is too sick to hold up its head. It is a very prominent symp- 
tom in all forms of ptomain poisoning. 

Cause. — Ptomain poisoning may be due to eating any kind 



FOODS POISONOUS TO FOWLS 229 

of food in which putrefaction has set in, but is usually the 
result of eating decaying meat or fish. 

Because of the more favorable conditions for the rapid 
putrefactiton of meat in very hot weather, ptomain poisoning 
occurs chiefly in mid-summer, and on farms where the fowls 
have an extended range, including patches of high weeds that 
effectually conceal dead animals from the caretaker, until" the 
loss of a large portion of the flock compels cutting weeds and 
a diligent search for the carcass. 

The beginning of ptomain poisoning in a flock is usually 
something like this : During very hot weather a bird dies in 
the tall weeds, it may be from disease or from violence, and 
in three or four days its carcass is filled with maggots and 
in an advanced stage of decomposition; it is found by the 
other birds and devoured, with the consequent death of many 
of them, some of them dying in out of the way places and 
remaining undiscovered by the keeper, and in turn poisoning 
others, and so on. 

Oftentimes the keeper is responsible for the beginning of 
the trouble by thoughtlessly throwing some small animal 
which he has killed (opossum, weasel, rat, etc.) where the 
fowls find it. If the weather conditions are favorable to rapid 
decomposition, ptomain poisoning in the flock will result and 
the "vermin" dead will destroy more birds than ten of its 
kind w T ould destroy during life. 

Maggots are usually found in the crops of birds dying from 
eating putrid flesh, and if the poultryman holds autopsies on 
the dead birds, he is quite apt to conclude that the maggots 
have killed them. Such is not the case. 

Treatment. — Give a tablespoonful of castor oil and one- 
fifth grain doses of sulphate of strychnin, the latter every 
four to six hours. 

Experiments have been conducted to determine the exact 
dosage of strychnin for an average-sized hen. It has been 
found that the dose should be from one-sixth to one-fifth of a 
grain three times a day. The author has given one grain re- 
peatedly without ill effect, but when given in solution and on 
an empty crop it killed the bird. 

BOTULISM 
(Limber Neck) 

Dickson has recently reported the results of several outbreaks 
of botulism among persons and the same condition among fowls 
where they had eaten some of the same kind of meat. In one 
case fifty fowls were affected after eating home-canned corn which 
had caused the death of a woman who had tasted it. In another 
case between fifty and one hundred fowls became paralyzed and 



230 POULTRY DISEASES 

died at the same time that a woman who cared for them had died 
of "bulbar paralysis." Eight fowls, in another case, showed the 
same symptoms and died after eating home-canned string beans 
which had caused the death of a woman who had tasted them. And 
in still another case seven fowls died after eating home-canned 
apricots which had also caused the death of five people. 

In all cases in human and fowls the symptoms and the course 
of intoxication were the same as those of botulism and in the 
histologic examination of one case, after autopsy, showed the typical 
thrombosis and hemorrhages which have been shown to be char- 
acteristic of the condition. The organism recovered from the fowls 
were identical in morphological and cultural characteristics to the 
Bacillus botulinus. The toxin from these cultures produced typical 
symptoms when fed to other fowls. The birds become dull, inactive, 
refuse to eat, remain quiet; their feathers are ruffled, and the 
birds gradually become weak. This is manifested in the legs, wings 
and finally in the neck, so that they are unable to stand; drop 
the wings; the neck is limber, the beak rests on the floor and 
finally prostration results. Death usually occurs in less than 
twenty-four hours after feeding. It has ueen found that the Bacillus 
botulinus may develop in decaying vegetables so that limber neck 
due to this organism may be obtained from thii; source as well as 
decaying meat. 

CORN COCKLE POISONING 

Chickens eating large quantities of corn cockle, in ground 
form, incorporated in their feed in the form of mash, have 
been poisoned. 

The seed contains a poison, sapotoxin, which causes a severe 
inflammation of the entire digestive tract, including the crop. 
Great prostration and death follow. 



SECTION XX 

POULTRY REMEDIES 

With the development of veterinary medicine there has 
come a knowledge of drugs and their applicability to diseases 
of the domestic fowl. The author has devoted much time and 
thought, the past few years, in rational medication of fowls 
and has worked out a dosage based on the physiological tests 
of the drugs upon healthy fowls and also the application in 
disease. 

The following brief discussion of poultry materia medica 
and its therapeutic application is thought best in this volume. 

In medicating birds it will be well either to give the drug 
by the mouth in capsule or in tablet form, since in a large 
number of cases the liquids administered as a drench find 
their way down into the trachea and bad results follow. 
Liquids may be mixed with mash or soaked in bread in cases 
where the fowl has not completely lost its appetite or where 
it does not object to the taste. 

The larynx of the fowl is not provided with an epiglottis 
and, in struggling birds, stands more or less open. 

Birds require a comparatively larger dosage to obtain the 
full physiological results than do mammals. A large amount 
of unsatisfactory medication of fowls in the past has come 
about through the lack of rational medication. 

Poultry Materia Medica 

ALOIN 

Source — A neutral principle obtained from aloes. 
Properties — Small acicular crystals, in color yellow to yellowish 
brown; odorless and bitter taste. 
Use — Cathartic. 
Indication — Constipation. 
Dose — For adult fowl, 1 to 2 grains. 

AMMONIUM CARBONATE (SMELLING SALTS) 

Source — A mixture of ammonium chlorid or sulphate, and cal- 
cium carbonate, is sublimed and resublimed. 

Properties — White, hard, translucent, striated masses, having a 
strong ammoniacal odor and a sharp salty taste. 

Action — A heart and respiratory stimulant. 

Indications — Acute bronchitis, pneumonia or in colds. 

Dose — For an adult fowl, 20 grains given in capsule. 



232 POULTRY DISEASES 

ARECA NUT (Betel nut) 

Source — From the seed which resembles nutmeg in shape and 
color. 

Properties — A brownish powder. 

Action — Destroys intestinal parasites. 

Indications — Infestation of intestines with worms, and acts as 
a cathartic. 

Dose — For adult fowl, 5 to 10 grains, given in wet mash. 

ARGENTI NITRAS FUSUS (Lunar caustic) 

Source — Melted silver nitrate, 3 parts, and potassium nitrate, 6 
parts, cast in suitable moulds. 

Properties — White, hard, solid pencils which appear finely gran- 
ular at a broken end. 

Action — A caustic. 

Indications— The pencil lunar caustic may be used to lightly burn 
ulcers in the mouth or head as in roup or sorehead. 

BARBADOES ALOES 

Source — The dried or inspissated juice of the Aloe vera. 
Properties — A hard mass, orange brown and opaque. Odor, saf- 
ron-like and bitter taste. 
Action — A cathartic. 
Indications — Constipation. 
Dose — For adult fowl, 10 to 20 grains. 

BELLADONNA FLUID EXTRACT (Deadly Nightshade) 

Source — An extract of the leaves of Atropia belladonna. 

Properties — Blackish-brown liquid of characteristc odor. 

Preparations — Extract; fluid extract and tincture. 

Action — A stimulant. Lessens mucous secretions. Small doses 
do not affect respiration but large doses make breathing quicker 
and deeper. 

Indications — Acute inflammation of the air passages as bronchi 
and lungs. 

Dose — To adult hen, five drops, repeated every three hours. May 
be dropped in mouth by aid of medicine dropper. 

CARBO LIGNI (Wood Charcoal) 

Source — Soft wood is charred by piling it in a heap, igniting, and 
covering it with sand and dirt to prevent rapid combustion. 

Properties — A black, odorless and tasteless powder or bits, free 
from gritty matter. 

Action and Indications — It is indicated in indigestion, chronic 
gastritis, and intestinal catarrh and diarrhea. 

How Given — May be kept in compartment of dry mash hopper 
where the birds have access to it. Use large size pieces for adult 
fowls and chick size for smaller ones. 

CASTOR OIL 

Source — A fixed oil expressed from the castor oil bean. 

Properties — A pale, yellowish and almost odorless, transparent 
viscid fluid and possessing an offensive taste. 

Use — A cathartic. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — One tablespoonful to each four fowls. May be given in 
wet mash. 



POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 233 

CHLOROFORM 

Source — Alcohol and water are heated in a still to 37.7° C, when 
chlorinated lime is added and chloroform is evolved. 

Properties — A heavy, clean, colorless, mobile and diffusible liquid 
of a characteristic ethereal odor, and a burning sweetish taste. 

Action — Anesthetic. 

Use — It is used as an anesthetic in preparing birds for operation. 
Chloroform and ether are an excellent combination for anesthetic 
purposes. 

COAL-TAR DISINFECTANT DIPS (Standardized) 

Source — Coal tar distillation products, the active principles of 
which are cresols and hydrocarbons. 

Properties — They are a rather thick, black tarry liquid which 
turns the water a milky color, due to the soapy emulsion that 
results upon the addition of the water. 

Use — A destroyer of germs and parasites. 

How Used — If the product so standardized has a coefficiency of 
5, then a two per cent solution in water (one ounce or two table- 
spoonfuls to each two quarts of water) should be used for spray- 
ing purposes for parasites and germs.' 

CONVALLARIA (Fluid Extract) (Lily of the Valley) 

Source — An extract of the plant. 
Preparations — Extract, fluid extract and tincture. 
Action and Indications — Similar to digitalis. 
Dose — For adult fowl, ten to twenty drops. 

CREOLIN 

Source — Obtained from soft coal by dry distillation, its composi- 
tion is very complex. It is said to contain cresol and higher homo- 
logues of phenol. 

Properties — -A dark-brown syrupy, alkaline liquid of a tarry taste 
and odor. 

Action — A powerful disinfectant, antiseptic and parasiticide. 

Use — As a spray for poultry houses and equipment use one to 
five ounces to each gallon of water. 

DIGITALIS (Fluid Extract) (Fox Glove) 

Source — From the leaves of digitalis. 
Preparations — Extract, fluid extract and tincture. 
Action — It strengthens the heart beat. 

Indications — It has a tendency to correct the rapid, weak, irregu- 
lar pulse. 

Dose — For adult hen ten to twenty drops. 

ETHER (Sulphuric Ether) 

Source — Obtained by distillation of alcohol with sulphuric acid. 

Properties — A transparent, colorless, mobile liquid, having a 
characteristic odor and a burning, sweetish taste. 

Action — To produce anesthesia. 

Use — It is used as an anesthetic in preparing for operations on 
birds. 

EUCALYPTUS, OIL OF 

Source — A volatile oil distilled from the leaves of the eucalyptus 
tree. 



234 POULTEY DISEASES 

Properties — A colorless or faintly yellowish liquid. It has a 
characteristic aromatic odor, and a pungent, spicy and cooling 
taste. 

I Action — It is an antiseptic and disinfectant, being three times 
as effective as carbolic acid. 

Indications — Catarrhal conditions of the nasal mucous mem- 
branes, and mucous membranes of trachea and bronchi. 

Use — As a steam inhalation or as a spray or injection in catarrh 
and roup combined with other drugs, as follows: 

Oil of eucalyptus 20 drops 

Oil of thyme 1 dram 

Menthol 10 grains 

Oil petrol 2 ounces 

Mix and inject into nasal passage. 

FERROUS SULPHATE (Copperas, green vitriol) 

Source — Iron wire is dissolved by boiling in diluted sulphuric 
acid. 

Properties — Large, pale, bluish green, monoclinic prisms, with- 
out odor and having a salty taste. Changes to a fine powder on 
being exposed to air. 

Action — Externally it is an astringent and stimulant. 

Indications — In a solution of one ounce to one gallon of water 
for wounds of any kind in the fowl. 

FORMALDEHYD (Formic aldehyd) 

Source — Obtained by partial combustion of wood alcohol, with- 
out ignition, by evaporation of the spirit in contact with a hot, 
platinized, asbestos plate. 

Properties — A pungent gas. Sold in aqueous solution (40 per 
cent gas in water). It is very volatile. 

Uses — A strong disinfectant. Used in about the same dilution 
as lysol for disinfecting purposes. 

GENTIAN, POWDERED 

Source — Obtained from the gentian roots. 

Properties — A yellowish brown powder possessing a bitter taste. 
Action — Improves the appetite and stimulates digestion. 
Indications — Indigestion, loss of appetite and malnutrition. 
Dose — Same as for ginger, which see. 

GINGER, POWDERED (Zingiber) 

Source — Prom the roots of the Zingiber officinale. 

Properties — A yellowish-brown powder with bitter taste. 

Action — A bitter tonic. 

Indication — Indigestion, loss of appetite, malnutrition. 

Use — Combined for tonic with other drugs, as follows: 

Powdered ginger 2 ounces 

Powdered gentian 2 ounces 

Powdered nux vomica 2 ounces 

Mix one teaspoonful to each twelve fowls. Given twice daily in 
wet mash. 

GLYCERIN 

Source — A liquid obtained by the decomposition of vegetable or 
animal fats or fixed oils. 

Properties — A clear, colorless liquid of a thick, syrupy consist- 



POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 235 

ency, oily to the touch, odorless, very sweet and slightly warm to 
the taste. 

Action — Its affinity for water causes it to keep moist the surface 
to which it is applied. 

Indication — Inflammation or injury of the mouth, pip, stomatitis. 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Muriatic acid) 

Source — From a distillation of sulphuric acid, sodium chlorid and 
water. The resulting gas is passed into distilled water. 

Properties — A colorless, fuming liquid of pungent odor, and an 
intensely acid taste. 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID (Dilute) 

Made by taking 100 parts concentrated hydrochloric acid, 219 
parts distilled water. 

Action — It aids digestion by stimulating the formation of secretin 
in the stomach and intestines and excites the activity of all the 
glands giving rise to the secretions concerned with digestive ac- 
tivity. 

In concentrated form is caustic. 

Indication — Indigestion. 

Dose — One tablespoonful to each gallon of drinking water. 

LINSEED OIL 

Source — A fixed oil expressed from linseed or flaxseed. 
Properties — A yellowish, oily liquid, peculiar odor and bland taste. 
Use — A cathartic. 
Indication — Constipation. 

Dose — One tablespoonful to each six fowls. May be given in wet 
mash. Raw oil must be used. 

LYSOL 

Source — From that part of tar oil which boils between 190° and 
200° C, by dissolving in fat and saponifying in alcohol. 

Properties — A clear, brown, oily liquid of a feeble creosote-like 
odor. 

Action — Destroys germs and parasites. 

Use — One-half to two per cent solution in water to disinfect water 
or feed containers and to spray houses. 

MAGNESIUM SULPHATE (Epsom Salts) 

Source — It is obtained from native dolomite, a double carbonate 
of magnesium and calcium. 

Properties — Small, colorless, rhombic prisms, without odor, and 
having a cooling, saline and bitter taste. Slowly becomes a fine 
powder in dry air. 

Action — A hydrogogue cathartic. A feeble diuretic. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — For adult as a mild laxative, one tablespoonful to each 
twelve fowls. Best given in solution in water and this mixed with 
dry mash. One teaspoonful given by the mouth in solution will 
produce action in about four hours. 

MENTHOL (Peppermint Camphor) 
Source — Obtained from the official oil of peppermint. 
Properties — Colorless, acicular or prismatic crystals. It possesses 
a strong, pure odor of peppermint. 



236 POULTRY DISEASES 

Action — Allays irritation. 

Indication — Catarrh of the head. 

Use — Same as oil eucalyptus, which see. 

MERCURIC CHLORID, CORROSIVE (Corrosive Sublimate) 

Source — A heated mixture of mercuric sulphate 20 parts, sodium 
chlorid 16 parts, manganese dioxid 1 part. 

Properties — Heavy, colorless, rhombic crystals, odorless, and hav- 
ing an acrid or persistent metallic taste. Permanent in air. 

Action — A severe caustic. 

Indications — May be used in contagious bowel diseases in fowls 
in drinking water. To each gallon of water add 6 grains mercuric 
bichlorid and 3 grains citric acid. It may be used in a solution of 
one, to one-thousand, as a disinfectant. 

MERCURIC CHLORID (Mild) (Calomel) 

Source — Heat mercurous sulphate and sodium chlorid. Calomel 
sublimes. 

Properties — A white, impalpable powder; odorless and tasteless, 
permanent in the air. Insoluble in water. 

Action — A cathartic. 

Dose — For adult fowl, 3 to 5 grains. 

NAPHTHALENE (Naphtalin) 

Source — A hydrocarbon obtained from coal tar by distillation be- 
tween 356° F. and 482° F. The impure naphtalin resulting is treated 
with sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxid, and is further purified by 
distillation with steam, and then by a mixture with strong sulphuric 
acid and finally by distillation. 

Properties — Colorless, shining, transparent laminae, having a 
strong characteristic odor resembling that of coal tar, and a burn- 
ing aromatic taste. It is slowly volatilized on exposure to air. 

Action — An excellent destroyer of parasites. 

Uses — As a powder in nests to destroy lice. Dissolved in kero- 
sene (from 5 to 10 per cent) to saturate perches to kill mites. Five 
per cent in vaselin as an ointment in scaly legs. This ointment 
gives good results in sore head. 

NUX VOMICA (Powdered) 

Source — From the seed of the Nucis vomicae. 

Indications — Indigestion, paralysis, loss of appetite. 

Action — Powdered nux vomica is a bitter tonic, increasing the ap- 
petite, gastric secretion, and motion. A nerve stimulant. 

Dose — For adult fowl, ten to twenty grains, repeated three times 
a day. May be given in capsule or doughball. As a tonic, one-half 
ounce in mash to each 12 hens. Twelve "stroke measure" teaspoon- 
fuls of nux vomica make one ounce. 

PETROL OIL 

A neutral thick oil used as a vehicle in which to mix liquid prep- 
arations. 

PETROLATUM (Vaselin, cosmolene) 

Source — A mixture of hydrocarbons, chiefly of the marsh gas 
series, obtained by distilling off the higher and more volatile por- 
tions from petroleum and purifying the residue when it has the 
desired consistency. 



POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 237 

Properties — A colorless or more or less yellowish, oily trans- 
parent liquid, without odor or taste; or giving off when heated, a 
faint odor of petroleum. 

Use — As a vehicle for other drugs in the preparation of ointments. 

PHENOL (Carbolic Acid) 

Source — Obtained from crude carbolic acid by agitation with 
caustic soda, heating to 338° F. and adding hydrochloric acid; then 
by agitation with sodium chlorid, digestion with calcium chlorid 
and distillation at a temperature between 336° and 374° F. and 
finally by crystallization, phenol results. 

Properties — Colorless, interlaced or separate, needle-shaped crys- 
tals, or a white crystalline mass, sometimes acquiring a reddish tint. 
It has a characteristic and somewhat aromatic odor and when it is 
greatly diluted with water has a sweetish taste. It goes into solu- 
tion with a very small amount of water. 

Action — An antiseptic, and in five per cent solutions it is a para- 
siticide. 

Use — As an intestinal antiseptic, use one to two teaspoonfuls to 
each gallon of water. As a spray for poultry houses, use one to 
five ounces to the gallon of water. 

PODOPHYLIN (May apple) 

Source — Obtained from the roots of the may apple. 

Properties — A fine non-crystallizable powder. It is yellowish in 
color and possesses a peculiar, faintly bitter taste. 

Action — A powerful, though slow, acting cathartic. In experi- 
ments on baby chicks, one-eighth grain doses proved fatal in 42 out 
of 43 tests. 

I ndications — Constipation. 

Dose — For adult fowl, one-fourth grain. 

POTASSIUM DICHROMATE 

Properties — It is a reddish-yellow crystalline potash product. 
Use — A pale, straw-colored solution in water is astringent and is 
indicated in sore throat or sore mouth. 

POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE 

Source — Caustic potash, chlorate of potassium and black oxid of 
manganese are fused together. 

Properties — Slender, monoclinic prisms, of a dark purple color, 
odorless, and having a taste first of sweet but afterwards disagree- 
able and astringent. Permanent in dry air. 

Action — An intestinal antiseptic. 

Indications — In contagious bowel diseases, as fowl cholera. Make 
drinking water lightly purple. About one ounce to four gallons of 
water. 

PYRETHRUM (Persian insect powder) 

Source — The powdered flowers of Pyrethrum roseus. 

Properties — A coarse, greenish-yellow, pungent powder. 

Use — Destroys fleas and lice. 

Indication — May be used to dust in nests and on birds for lice. 
Only the pure product will give satisfactory results, and too liberal 
quantities should not be employed. Some depressing results have 
been observed when used too freely upon birds. 



238 POULTRY DISEASES 

QUININ SULPHATE 

Source — Obtained by boiling cinchona bark with hydrochloric acid 
and adding lime to the filtered decoction. 

Properties — White, silky, light and fine needle-shaped crystals, 
with bitter taste. 

Action — Retards metabolism and thus lessens the production of 
heat in the tissues. It dilates the vessels of the skin and therefore 
induce loss of heat. 

Indications — Cold, bronchitis and pneumonia. 

Dose — For adult fowl, 2 to 3 grains three times daily. 

SANTONIN 

Source — A neutral principle obtained from santonica. Santonica 
is derived from worm seed. 

Properties — A colorless, flattened, prismatic crystal, odorless and 
almost tasteless. 

Action — Destroys intestinal parasites. 

Indications — Infestation of intestines with worms. 

Dose — For adult fowls, one-fourth grain. 

SODIUM CHLORID (Common or table salt) 

Source — Mined in native state or obtained by evaporation of brine, 
spring or sea water. 

Properties — Colorless, transparent, cubical crystals or a white 
crystalline powder with salty taste, permanent in dry air. 

Action — Essential constituent of the food, since it is necessary to 
the composition of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice and of 
blood plasma, from which it is constantly eliminated in the urine. 
Herbivorous and grain-eating animals require sodium chlorid in ad- 
dition to that contained in their food. While the blood is rich in 
sodium salts, vegetables are particularly rich in potassium salts. 

Birds deprived of salt suffer from anemia and general weakness. 
Birds cannot tolerate large doses of table salt. 

Use — The mash should contain from one-half to one pound to 
each one hundred pounds of mash, and this should be thoroughly 
mixed. 

SODIUM SULPHATE (Glauber, salts) 

Source — The neutralized residue left in the manufacture of hydro- 
chloric acid from salt with sodium carbonate. 

Properties — Large, colorless, transparent monoclinic prisms or 
granular crystals, odorless and possessing a bitter, salty taste. Upon 
exposure to the air it gradually becomes a fine powder and loses its 
wafer of crystallization. 

Action — A cathartic producing a watery stool. 

Dose — One tablespoonful to each 12 adult fowls. Younger birds 
in proportion. It is best given dissolved in water and this mixed 
with mash. It is dangerous to attempt to pour liquids down the 
throat of birds, as there is great danger of their passing into the 
superior larynx and lungs. By looking into the throat of a bird 
while holding the mouth open one can observe the entrance into 
the air passage open and close. 

Indications — Constipation. 

STRYCHNIN SULPHATE 

Source — The alkaloid (an active principle of nux vomica). Strych- 
nin sulphate is formed by the action of sulphuric acid on strychnin. 



POULTRY MATERIA MEDICA 239 

Properties — Colorless, transparent, octohedral or prismatic white 
crystalline powder. Odorless and with an intensely bitter taste. 
Action — A nerve stimulant. 
Indications — Paralysis. 
Dose — For adult fowl, one-fifth grain twice to three times daily. 

SULPHOCARBOLATES OF CALCIUM, ZINC AND SODIUM 

Source — The action of sulphuric acid and carbolic acid on me- 
tallic zinc, sodium or calcium. 

Properties — A white, crystalline powder. 

Use — In diarrhea, as an intestinal antiseptic. 

Dose — Of the mixture of equal parts of sulphocarbolate of calcium, 
sodium and zinc, dissolve thirty grains in a pint of water and use 
as drink or with which to mix mash. 

SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM (Sulphur) 
Source — Obtained from native sulphur by sublimation. 
Properties — A fine, yellow powder, having a slightly characteristic 

odor and a faintly acid taste. 

Action — Dissolved sulphur as in the lime and sulphur dip (7 

pounds unslaked lime, 21 pounds sulphur, 100 gallons water) is an 

excellent destroyer of parasites. In a dry state it has no effect 

upon mites and perhaps none on lice. 

THYME OIL 

Source — A volatile distillate from the Thymus vulgaris; source 
of thymol. 

Properties — A thin liquid of characteristic odor. 
Use — In catarrhal conditions. 

THYMOL 

Source — A phenol occurring in the volatile oil of thyme. 
Properties — Large, colorless, translucent crystals of the hexagonal 
system. 

Action — Destroys intestinal parasites. 

Indications — Infestation by round worms. 

Dose — For adult fowl, three grains, followed by a physic. 

TOBACCO 

Properties — From a golden yellow to a chestnut brown, contain- 
ing an active principal, nicotin. 

Use — Nicotin is very destructive to parasites, as lice and mites. 
Tobacco stems and leaves have no effect upon them. Dry leaves 
and stems in nests are useless. A decoction made by boiling 
tobacco stems or leaves in water is destructive to parasites and 
contains nicotin in solution. As a spray, nicotin in one-fourth 
of one per cent solution will destroy parasites. 

WORM SEED, OIL OF 

Source — Obtained from santonica. 

Properties — A volatile oil, yellowish in color with characteristic 
odor. 

Action — Destroys worms. 

Indications — Intestinal worms. 

Dose — For adult fowls, one teaspoonful to each twelve birds. 



240 POULTRY DISEASES 

ZINC SULPHATE 

Source — Prepared by dissolving metallic zinc in sulphuric acid. 

Properties — Colorless, transparent, rhombic crystals, without odor 
and having an astringent, metallic taste. Changes to a fine powder 
when exposed to dry air. 

Indications — One per cent solution in distilled water and two or 
three drops in the eye in case of inflammation (conjunctivitis). 



INDEX 



A 

Page 
Abdomen, purulent inflammation 

of the 130 

Abdominal cyst 162 

Abdominal tumor 161 

Abnormal eggs 155 

Abortion in birds, epizootic 157 

Abscess of the foot 190 

Abscesses of the liver 151 

Acanthia inodora 83 

Acanthocephala 98 

Achorion schoenleinii 84 

Actinomycosis 147 

Adenoma 164 

Adrenal glands, anatomy of the.. 32 

Air sac disease 74 

Air sacs, anatomy of the 31 

Air sacs, inflammation of the 182 

Ameba meleagridis Ill 

Amyloid degeneration 152 

Anatomy of the adrenal glands.. 32 

Anatomy of the air sacs 31 

Anatomy of the carotid glands'.... 32 
Anatomy of the circulatory sys- 
tem 32 

Anatomy of the cloaca 26 

Anatomy of the digestive tract.... 22 

Anatomy of the esophagus 23 

Anatomy of the eyes 38 

Anatomy of the female repro- 
ductive organs 42 

Anatomy of the gizzard 24 

Anatomy of the head 17 

Anatomy of the kidneys 50 

Anatomy of the large intestine.. 25 

Anatomy of the larynx 29 

Anatomy of the liver 26 

Anatomy of the limbs 20 

Anatomy of the lungs 30 

Anatomy of the male reproduc- 
tive organs 48 

Anatomy of the mouth 22 

Anatomy of the nasal cavities.... 28 

Anatomy of the neck 17 

Anatomy of the nervous system.. 35 
Anatomy of the organs of hear- 
ing 1 39 

Anatomy of the organs of smell 40 
Anatomy of the organs of special 

sense 38 

Anatomy of the organs of taste.. 40 
Anatomy of the organs of touch 40 

Anatomy of the pancreas 28 

Anatomy of the pharynx 23 

Anatomy of the respiratory tract 2S 
Anatomy of the small intestine.. 25 

Anatomy of the spleen 28 

Anatomy of the stomach 24 

Anatomy of the thymus gland.... 32 

Anatomy of the trachea 30 

Anatomy of the trunk 19 

Anatomy, visceral 22 

Anesthesia of the fowl 215 

Angiocholitis 151 

Aphtha 84 

Apoplectiform septicemia 133 



Page 

Appetite depraved 106 

Argas miniatus 82 

Arsenic, poisoning from 227 

Arthritis, infectious 189 

Articular inflammation, infec- 
tious 1S9 

Ascaris inflexa 87 

Ascites 129 

Aspergillosis. 85, 152, 172 

Aspergillus fumigatus 85, 152, 172 

Aspergillus glaucus : 85 

Asthenia 141 

Asthma 169 

Asthma of canaries 185 

Auditory nerve, paralysis of the..l98 
Autopsy, mode of performing 63 

B 

Bacillus avisepticus 106 

Bacillus botulinus 230 

Bacteria of eggs 203 

Bacteria of the intestinal tract..201 

Bacterium asthene 141 

Bacterium pullorum 119 

Bacterium sanguinarium 134 

Baldness of canaries 86 

Beak, broken 219 

Beak, obstruction of the 101 

Bedbug of poultry 83 

Bee stings 84 

Bile ducts, inflammation of the..l51 

Birds, lice of 65 

Blackhead Ill 

Blastomycosis of geese 128 

Blood diseases 133 

Blood of normal fowl 34 

Blood tumors 160 

Blood vessels, rupture of the 140 

Bone, reparative processes of 212 

Bones, structure of 211 

Botulism 229 

Brain, diseases of the 195 

Brain, hemorrhage of the 195 

Bronchitis 169 

Buildings and runs 54 

Buildings, disinfection of 57 

C 

Calculi 130 

Canaries, asthma of 185 

Canaries, baldness of 86 

Canaries, cholera of 135 

Canaries, infectious necrosis of..l35 
Canaries, intestinal diseases of..l31 

Canaries, intestinal worms of 99 

Canaries, respiratory troubles of-184 

Canaries, septicemia of 135 

Canaries, septicemic diseases of.. 135 

Canaries, typhoid of 135 

Canary louse, gray 67 

Canary mite 68 

Caponizing 221 

Carotid glands, anatomy of the.. 32 
Castration 221 



242 



INDEX 



Page 

Catarrh 167 

Catarrh, nasal 182 

Catarrh of the crop 105 

Cercomonas hepatis 127 

Cercomoniasis 152 

Chick, umbilical hernia of the.... 209 

Chicken cholera 106 

Chickenpox 173 

Chickens, apoplectiform septi- 
cemia in 133 

Chickens, sleeping sickness of.— 135 

Chigger infestation 76 

Choanota infundibuliformis 96 

Cholecystitis 151 

Cholera 106 

Cholera of canaries 135 

Circulatory system, anatomy of 

the 32 

Cloaca, anatomy of the 26 

Cloaca, prolapse of the 155 

Cloacitis 128 

Coccidiosis in wild ducks 126 

Coccidiosis, renal 127 

Coccidium avium 127 

Coccidium tenellum 119 

Cochlear nerve, paralysis of the. .198 

Colds 167 

Comb, white scale of the 85 

Combs, frozen 218 

Congestion of the liver 150 

Congestion of the lungs 170 

Conjunctivitis 183 

Constitutional diseases 141 

Contagious epithelioma 163 

Contagious inflammation of the 

air sacs 182 

Contagious nasal catarrh 182 

Copper, poisoning from 228 

Cornea, ulceration of the 184 

Coryza avium contagiosa 182 

Crop, catarrh of the 105 

Crop bound 103 

Crop, enlarged 105 

Crop, gangrene of the 105 

Crop, gaseous 104 

Crop, impaction of the 103 

Crop, pendulous 105 

Crop, tympany of the 104 

Croupous inflammation of the 

pigeon 124 

Curvature of the spine ....217 

Cuticular surface, horny growths 

on the 166 

Cyst, abdominal _.162 

Cystic ovary 160 

Cytodites nudus 75 

D 

Davainea echinobothrida 98 

Davainea tetragona 97 

Dermanyssus avium 79 

Dermanyssus gallinae 79 

Diarrhea, non-specific 117 

Diarrhea, white 119 

Digestive tract, anatomy of the.. 22 
Digestive tract, diseases of the. .101 
Diphtheric inflammation of the 

eyes ISO 

Diphtheric roup 174 

Dipygus tetrabrachium 207 

Disinfection 57 

Disinfection of buildings 57 

Disinfection of yards 61 

Dispharagus laticeps 94 



Page 

Dispharagus nasutus 94 

Dispharagus spiralis 94 

Disposal of sick and dead birds.. 62 

Dizziness 195 

Drepanidotaenia infundibulifor- 
mis 96 

Ducks- coccidiosis in 126 

Ducks, infectious articular in- 
flammation in 189 

Ducks, inflammation of the eyes 

in 180 

Ducks, lice of 67 

Dwarf eggs 156 

Dysentery 117 

E 

Echinorynchus polymorphus 98 

Egg bound 153 

Egg, composition of the 203 

Egg shell, composition of the 203 

Eggs, abnormal 155 

Eggs, animal parasites in 203 

Eggs, bacteria of 203 

Eggs, dwarf _.156 

Endocarditis •'- 139 

Enteritis 117 

Enterohepatitis Ill 

Epilepsy 195 

Epithelioma 165 

Epithelioma, contagious 163 

Esophagus, anatomy of the 23 

Eversion of the oviduct 153 

Eyes, anatomy of the 38 

Byes, diphtheric inflammation of 
the 180 

F 

Face, white scale of the 85 

Fatty degeneration of the liver.. ..149 

Fatty infiltration of the liver 149 

Feathers, anatomy of the 40 

Filaria tite 94 

Fleas 80 

Flukes 99 

Foods poisonous to fowls „ 227 

Foot, abscess of the 190 

Foot mange 72 

Fowl cholera 106 

Fowl pest 136 

Fowl typhoid 134 

Fracture of bones, repair of the..211 

Fractures 211 

Fractures, treatment of 214 

Frozen combs 218 

Fungi affecting birds 84 

G 

Gangrene 218 

Gangrene of the crop 105 

Geese, blastomycosis of 128 

Geese, infectious articular in- 
flammation in 189 

Geese, inflammation of the air 

sacs in 182 

Geese, lice of 67 

Geese, renal coccidiosis of 127 

Geese, septicemia of 133 

Gizzard, anatomy of the 24 

Gizzard, suppurative inflamma- 
tion of the 130 

Going light 141 

Goniocotes gigas 66 



INDEX 



243 



Page 

Goniocotes hologaster 66 

Goniodes dissimillia 66 

Goniodes stylifer 66 

Gout 191 



H 

Head, anatomy of the 17 

Hearing-, anatomy of the organs 

of 39 

Heart, hypertrophy of the 140 

Heart, rupture of the 140 

Hematoma 160 

Hemorrhage of the brain 195 

Hepatitis, protozoal 127 

Hernia of the baby chick, um- 
bilical 209 

Heterakis compressa 93 

Heterakis differens 93 

Heterakis maculosa 94 

Heterakis papillosa 89 

Heterakis perspieillum S7 

Honey-comb ringworm 84 

Horny growths on the cuticular 

surface 166 

Hypertrophy of the heart 140 



I 

Impaction of the crop 103 

Impaction of the intestines 104 

Infectious leukemia _ 134 

Infectious necrosis of canaries.— 135 

Inflammation, articular 189 

Inflammation of the abdomen 130 

Inflammation of the air sacs 182 

Inflammation of the bile ducts. ...151 
Inflammatiton of the eyes in 

ducks 180 

Inflammation of the gizzard 130 

Inflammation of the liver 151 

Inflammation of the lungs.. 171 

Inflammation of the oil gland 157 

Ingluvitis 105 

Injury to the sternum 217 

Intestinal tract, bacteria of the. .201 

Intestines, anatomy of the 25 

Intestines, impaction of the 104 



Jaundice 152 

Jigger or red mite 76 



Kidneys, anatomy of the 50 

Kidneys, coccidiosis of the 127 

L 

Large intestine, anatomy of the 26 

Larynx, anatomy of the 29 

Lead, poisoning from 228 

Leg weakness 187 

Legs, scaly 72 

Leukemia, infectious 134 

Leukemia, myeloid 134 

Lice, life history of 68 

Lice of birds 65 

Lice of canaries 67 

Lice of ducks 67 

Lice of geese 67 



Page 

Lice of pigeons 67 

Lice of turkeys 66 

Limber neck 229 

Limbs, anatomy of the 20 

Lipeurus baculus 67 

Lipeurus infuscatus 66 

Lipeurus jejunus 67 

Lipeurus polytrapezius 67 

Lipeurus squalidus 67 

Liver, abscesses and tumors of 

the 151 

Liver, anatomy of the 26 

Liver, congestion of the 150 

Liver, diseases of the 149 

Liver, fatty degeneration of the. .149 
Liver, fatty infiltration of the... .149 

Liver, inflammation of the 151 

Liver, rupture of the 150 

Louse infestation, dealing with.... 69 

Louse infestation, effects of 69 

Lungs, anatomy of the 30 

Lungs, congestion of the 170 

Lungs, inflammation of the 171 

Lymph vessels 35 

M 

Macrodactvlus subspinosus Fab. 227 

Malformations 207 

Mange, foot 72 

Materia medica 231 

Menopon biseriatum 65 

Menopon obscurum 67 

Menopon pallidum 65 

Monocercomonas gral'inarum 15? 

Mouth, anatomy of the 22 

Mouth, sore 103 

Mycosis of pigeons 85 

Myelitis 196 

Myeloid leukemia 134 

N 

Nasal catarrh, contagious 182 

Nasal cavities, anatomy of the.... 28 

Neck, anatomy of the 17 

Nephritis 129 

Nerves, diseases of the 195 

Nervous system, anatomy of the 35 

Nodular tapeworm disease 97 

Notocotyle verrucosum 99 

O 

Obstruction of the beak 101 

Obstruction of the oviduct 153 

Obstruction of the trachea 167 

Oidium albicans 84 

Oil gland, inflammation of the.. .157 
Organs of locomotion, diseases 

of the 187 

Organs of special sense, anat- 
omy of 38 

Osteoma 165 

Ovariectomy 225 

Ovary and oviduct, diseases of 

the 153 

Ovary, cystic 160 

Ovary, multiple tumors of the....l60 

Oviduct, broken eggs in 155 

Oviduct, obstruction of the 153 

Oviduct, prolapse or eversion of 

the 153 

Oviduct, rupture of the 154 



244 



INDEX 



p 

Page 

Pancreas, anatomy of the 28 

Papilloma 166 

Paralysis of the auditory nerve~198 
Paralysis of the cochlear nerve..l98 
Paralysis of the vestibular nerve. 198 
Paralysis of the wings of pig- 

ieons 189 

Parasites, external 65 

Parasites in eggs 203 

Parasites, internal 87 

Pericarditis 139 

Peritonitis 128 

Pestis avium 136 

Pharyngitis, ulcerative 169 

Pharynx, anatomy of the 23 

Phosphorus, poisoning from 228 

Pica 106 

Pigeons, apoplectiform septice- 
mia in 133 

Pigeons, croupous inflammation 

of 124 

Pigeons, lice of 67 

Pigeons, mycosis of 85 

Pigeons, paralysis of the wings 

of , 189 

Pigeons, protozoal hepatitis of.... 127 

Pip 102 

Pneumomycosis 85, 172 

Pneumonia 171 

Poisoning from arsenic. 227 

Poisoning from copper 228 

Poisoning from lead 228 

Poisoning from phosphorus 228 

Poisoning from rose chafer 227 

Poisoning from salt 228 

Poisoning from saltpeter 228 

Poisoning from zinc 228 

Poisoning, ptomain 228 

Poisonous foods 227 

Polymelus 208 

Polyneuritis 196 

Polyneuritis gallinarum 196 

Poultry plant, site for 53 

Pox of turkeys 180 

Prolapse of the cloaca 155 

Prolapse of the oviduct .153 

Protozoal hepatitis of pigeons... .127 

Pseudo- tuberculosis 147 

Psorospermosis 128 

Ptomain poisoning 228 

Pulex avium 80 



Remedies for poultry 231 

Renal coccidiosis 127 

Reproductive organs of the male, 

anatomy of 48 

Reproductive organs of the fe- 
male, anatomy of 42 

Respiratory passages, diseases 

. of the 167 

Respiratory tract, anatomy of 

the 28 

Respiratory troubles of canaries. 184 

Restraint of the fowl 215 

Rose chafer . 227 

Round worms, important 87 

Round worms, unimportant 93 

Roup 174 

Rupture of the heart and large 

blood-vessels 140 

Rupture of the liver 150 

Rupture of the oviduct 154 



Saccharomyces albicans 84 

Salt, poisoning from 228 

Saltpeter, poisoning from 228 

Sanitation 53 

Sarcocystis 128 

Sarcoma 164 

Sarcoptes mutans 73 

Sarcopsylla gallinacea 81 

Scabies 72 

Scaly legs 72 

Septicemia, apoplectiform 133 

Septicemia of canaries 135 

Septicemia of geese 133 

Septicemic diseases of canaries. .135 

Skin, anatomy of the 40 

Sleeping sickness of chickens 135 

Small intestine, anatomy of the.. 25 
Smell, anatomy of the organs of.. 40 

Sore mouth 84 

Spine, curvature of the 217 

Spirocheta gallinarum 138 

Spirocb etosis 138 

Spiroptera hamulosa 90 

Spleen, anatomy of the 28 

Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus. 189 

Sternum, injury to the 217 

Stomach, anatomy of the 24 

Stomatitis 10"? 

Streptococcus gallinarum 133 

Subcutem, diseases of the 147 

Swell-head in young turkeys 172 

Syngamus trachealis 92 



T 

Taenia infundibuliformis 96 

Tapeworm disease, nodular 97 

Tapeworms °4 

Taste, anatomy of the organs of 40 

Teratoma 164 

Thrombosis 137 

Thrush 84 

Thymus gland, anatomy of the.. 32 

Tick infestation 82 

Tinea favosa 84 

Touch, anatomy of the organs of 40 

Trachea, anatomy of the 30 

Trachea, obstruction of the 167 

Trematodes 99 

Trichomoniasis 124 

Trichosoma contortum 94 

Trichosomum 93 

Trinoton continuum 67 

Trombidium holosericeum 76 

Trunk, anatomy of the 19 

Tuberculosis 143 

Tumor, caseous abdominal 161 

Tumors 159 

Tumors, blood lfi« 

Tumors of the ovary, multiple. ...160 

Turkeys, lice of 66 

Turkeys, pox of 180 

Turkeys, swell-head in —..172 

Tympany of the crop 104 

Typhoid 134 

Typhoid of canaries 135 



U 

Ulceration of the cornea 184 

Ulcerative pharyngitis 169 

Umbilical hernia of the baby 

chick 209 

Urinary secretion 50 



INDEX 



245 



v 

Page 

Vertigo 195 

Vestibular nerve, paralysis of 

the 19S 

Visceral anatomy 22 

W 

Warts 166 

Water supply 56 

Wattles, white scale of the 85 

White diarrhea 119 

White scale of the comb, face 

and wattles 85 

Wild ducks, coccidiosis in 126 



Page 

Wings, paralysis of the 189 

Worms, eradication of 91 

Worms, fiat segmented 94 

Worms of canaries 99 

Worms, round 87 

Worms, thorn-headed 98 

Wounds 215 

Y 

Yards, disinfection of 61 

Z 
Zinc, poisoning from 228 



